Formatting Tip: The Taxonomy of Life, Plants, Animals…

I don’t garden much anymore, and I’m tired of researching the hierarchy and its formatting for those few times the Latin two-part name appears in a manuscript, and that’s why you’re stuck with this particular post . . . bwa-ha-ha . . . *grin*

While style guides change from publisher to publisher, the style and hierarchy in formatting scientific names is the same across any type of writing and in any foreign language.

Most of us have come into contact with this structure — taxonomy — through Genus species, and usually because we’ve been to the nursery to buy some plants or because we’re hip-deep in landscaping.

And I cannot recommend highly enough that, if you have a specific plant in mind, know the genus, species and subspecies! Not everyone who works at a nursery knows the intimate details of plants, and yet those three words indicate a world of difference! So if you were expecting a Euonymous fortunei ‘Colorata’ that would grow as a vine or one that grew as a bush . . . well, you need to know.

And while this post on taxonomy is geared to the scientific, it still applies to writers.

Scientific Classification of Humans

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens

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The Taxonomy

It’s a classification system that has a hierarchical structure that sorts anything that’s alive: plants, animals, viruses, and bacteria. (And the more that scientists discover about any of these, the more complex it gets.)

This post “The Taxonomy of Life, Plants, Animals . . .” is how to format the information provided by this system. Do note that botany and zoology sometimes use different formats, and I’ve tried to indicate those instances. For more detailed information, see the links to the various International Codes for these specifics.

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Binomial Nomenclature, a.k.a., Species Binomial

This classification system of using two names, which was invented in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, is the one you’re most likely to use. Naturally, this has to be more complex with binomial the proper “nomenclature” in botany and binominal refers to zoology (adds another n).

Every organism has a scientific name that includes two Latin words: the Genus and the species name.

For online documents, you can italicize anything by enclosing the word(s) to be italicized with <em>Genus species</em>.

Even if you write fiction, you will appear more professional if you use proper taxonomic terms and formatting. I downgrade any website that can’t figure out how to use the hierarchy OR format it correctly.

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Trinomial Nomenclature

A classification system using three names (in Latin) — Genus species subspecific epithet. Different habitats may cause a Genus species to evolve minor differences which requires a label to identify that distinction — that subspecies designation.

Zoology uses trinomen instead of trinomial; you may also find it referred to as trinominal name or ternary name. The plural for trinomial is trinomina.

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Latin or Common?

The Latin name for a specimen has a specified format while common names only need to be capitalized if it’s required grammatically. Although, you’ll still have to capitalize those parts of a common name that include a geographical location or a person’s name.

Typical common names include dachshund, Kirtland’s warbler, Carolina wren, polar bear, rose, truffle, seagull, aster, snake plant, etc.

You can also anglicize the Latin name by changing the binomial to an English format. This allows you to treat the anglicized name as common names which are not capitalized.

Typical anglicizations include:

• Chordata – chordates (phylum)
• Hominidae – hominids (family)
• Eukaryota – eukaryotes (domain)

Sometimes the scientific name for genus and the common name for an organism are the same, hydra, Hydra. You don’t have to use the Latin unless you want to specify a genus and species.

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Formatting Tips started . . .

. . . as my way of dealing with a professional frustration with words that should have been capitalized or italicized, in quotes or not, what should be spelled out and what can be abbreviated, proper styling for the Latin names of plants, the proper formatting and usage of titles and more in manuscripts I was editing as well as books I was reviewing. It evolved into a sharing of information with y’all. I’m hoping you’ll share with us any questions you’ve had on this subject that have been a bête noire for you from either end.

If you found this post on “The Taxonomy of Life, Plants, Animals . . .” interesting, consider subscribing to KD Did It, if you’d like to track this post for future updates.

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Taxonomy – Formatting
Definition: The branch of biology that classifies everything that is alive into different taxa, including its principles, procedures, and rules. Basic Ranks in Taxonomy The taxa in purple indicate their place in the taxonomic hierarchy, but are not addressed in any detail. The ranks (categories), known as taxa (the singular is taxon), are, in descending order: Realm Subrealm Domain, a.k.a., empire, superkingdom Kingdom Subkingdom Infrakingdom/Branch Superphylum/Superdivision Division (plants and fungi) Phylum (animals and bacteria) Subphylum Infraphylum Microphylum Superclass Class Subclass Infraclass Parvclass Legion Cohort Magnorder Superorder Order Suborder Infraorder Parorder Section (zoology) Superfamily Family Subfamily (zoology) Infrafamily (zoology) Supertribe (zoology) Tribe (zoology) Subtribe (zoology) Infratribe (zoology) Genus Genus nova Subgenus Section (botany) Subsection (botany) Series (botany) Subseries (botany) specific epithet (species) species nova subspecies variety subvarietas ‘Cultivar’ (Genus) Hybrid (Species) Hybrid forma (botany) / form (zoology) subforma
Realm	Definition: The top of the hierarchical heap when it comes to viruses.
Subrealm	Definition: Part of realm, which is all about the viruses.
Domain	Definition: A new rank (not used until 1990), it is the highest (most general) rank of organisms, including the most number of individuals in the group. Domains distinguish between the cell types and, in the case of prokaryotes, where they are found and of what the cell walls are made.
Return to top or post contents	There are three domains of life: Archaea – single-celled organisms similar to bacteria, but with no cell nucleus; it split off from Bacteria Bacteria – prokaryotic microorganisms, a type of biological cell with a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals Eukaryota – every living thing on earth that is not a bacterium or archaeon Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type. A.k.a., empire, superkingdom
Kingdom	Definition: Originally the highest taxonomic rank, it is now a subcategory under domain and divided into six kingdoms:
Return to top or post contents	Animalia Archaebacteria Eubacteria Fungi Plantae Protista Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Superphylum / Superdivision	Definition: Groups together phylums or divisions which share a common trait, i.e., Chordata includes every living thing with a vertebrae, from man to dog to . . . Division (plants and fungi) Phylum (animals and bacteria) Subphylum
Division	Definition: The original taxonomic level, it split and phylum was created. It is a broad classification that splits kingdoms into multiple groups of plants and fungi. Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Phylum	Definition: A split-off from division, it is broad classification that splits kingdoms into multiple groups of animals and bacteria. Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type. Plural: phyla
Subphylum	Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Class	Definition: The most general rank proposed by Linnaeus, class was introduced in the 19th century. Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Subclass	Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Order	Definition: More specific than class. Some of the orders include: Lepidoptera – butterflies and moths) Some 19-26 orders of the class Mammalia, including Primates, Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), Carnivora (large carnivores/omnivores), and Chiroptera (bats) Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Suborder	Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type. A group of related plants or animals, more closely related than an order but less similar than a family.
Return to top or post contents	Examples:
	Chordata Mammalia Xenarthra Pilosa Vermilingua Euarchontoglires Glires Rodentia Castorimorpha Euarchontoglires Glires Rodentia Myomorpha
Family	Definition: More specific than order, some families are: The order Carnivora includes 12 total families, including Canidae (dogs, wolves, foxes), Felidae (cats), Mephitidae (skunks), and Ursidae (bears). Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Subfamily	Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and roman type.
Return to top or post contents	Examples:
	Chordata Vertebrata Reptilia Squamata Seprentes Viperidae Crotolinae (pit viper) Cypriniformes Cyprinoidei Danionidae Rasbora argyrotaenia Rasbora argyrotaenia (silver rasbora)
Genus	Definition: Most commonly encountered by us common people, genus is even more specific than family, it is the first part of an organism’s scientific name using binomial nomenclature.
Return to top or post contents	Rule: Always use an initial capital letter and put the entire genus in italics (Underline it if handwritten). Plural: genera Rule: When the species name is first used, spell out the genus and species. If it is repeated in the same chapter, article, or paper, abbreviate the genus name to a single capital initial.
	Homo sapiens H. sapiens Danaus plexipus D. plexipus
	Rule: When referring to a species that is commonly know, the entire genus name does not have to be spelled out.
	E. coli R. floribunda
	Rule: When you introduce the name of another species in the same genus, you can use the abbreviated genus name for the new species.
	Felis catus is the domestic cat. If you introduce another Felis genus, you may abbreviate the genus as F. silvestris (wild cat).
	Rule: Do NOT abbreviate the genus if you writing of two species that belong to different genera but start with the same initial letter.
	Leopardus pardalis (ocelot) and Lynx canadensis (Canada lynx)
	Rule: SOME style guides allow a two- or three-letter abbreviations of the genus if you writing of two species that belong to different genera but start with the same initial letter.
	Leopardus pardalis Le. pardalis Leo. pardalis Lynx canadensis Ly. canadensis Lyn. canadensis
specific epithet	Definition: The most specific major taxonomic rank (all individuals, and only those individuals, that are capable of interbreeding with the offspring also capable) positioned right after genus (see “binomial nomenclature“), each specific epithet has a unique identifier that describes only that species. Species is commonly used in place of specific epithet. In truth, a species, by definition, is the combination of both the genus and specific epithet, not just the epithet. Rule: Specific epithet / species is always lowercase and italicized. Rule: If used for animals and handwritten, it must be underlined. Plural: species A.k.a., species, epithet
Return to top or post contents	Canis lupus is a species (gray wolf) but we cannot use just Canis or lupus to describe this animal.
	Rule: The only taxonomic rank that is NEVER capitalized — always use lowercase — and always italicize it.
	Monarch butterfly is Danaus plexipus Danaus is a genus of butterflies in the tiger butterfly tribe. plexipus is a specific epithet that singles out the Monarch butterfly.
	Rule: [Botany] Plant names based on people or places are capitalized by botanists. [Zoology] In the past, if a proper name were used for the specific epithet, it had been capitalized. Today, it’s always lowercased. Mozley
	Gaylussacia baccata (Wangenh.) Koch Malus pumila Miller Megalonyx Jeffersonii now it’s lowercased: Megalonyx jeffersonii A type of sloth discovered by Thomas Jefferson. Hyla andersoni
	Rule: While each genus name is unique, the same species names can be used for different organisms.
	Ursus americanus American black bear Bufo americanus American toad Bufo bufo European toad
	Rule: The same genus name may be repeated in the species epithet.
	Bubo bubo Eurasian eagle owl Rattus rattus rat Vulpes vulpes red fox
	Rule: Specific epithet can be abbreviated in order to indicate that several species are referred to under a particular genus, are unspecified, unidentified, or an unknown species: Singular – sp. (used when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified) Plural – spp. (indicates several species) Rule: Do not italicize or underline the abbreviation.
	The nesting of crows and ravens (Corvus spp.) was monitored. Crows and ravens are both under the Corvus as a genus, which includes crows, ravens, rooks, and jackdaws. There were several Canis spp., but only one Felix catus. There were several different dogs, but only one cat.
	Rule: When referring to an unspecified, unidentified, or unknown species, use the abbreviation sp..
	The meadow contained several sedge plants (Carex sp.). The forest floor contained several species of pixie cup lichen (Cladonia spp.).
species nova	Definition: A phrase used when a species is being formally introduced in a scientific paper that indicates that a species is being introduced in the literature for the first time. Rule: Species nova always follows the specific epithet, and always uses lowercase and is italicized. Rule: Never italicize the abbreviations. Singular – sp. nov. Plural – spp. nov. Plural – species novae
Return to top or post contents	Pyrococcus furiosus sp. nov. represents a novel genus of marine heterotrophic archaebacteria growing optimally at 100°C.
	Rule: If there is an author name (the scientist or scientists who first validly published the name), it is in roman, the initial letter is capitalized, and follows the scientific name (Genus + species + Author). It may also: Consist of the full surname Be abbreviated, i.e., Linnaeus is frequently abbreviated with an L., for Linnaeus Botany has a regulated list of standard abbreviations for authors *. Zoology has a slightly different list. * I couldn’t find the standardized lists from official sources and have provided the Wikipedia pages . . . unless someone knows where to find the official ones?? Be abbreviated and include one or more initials with NO space between the initials and surname/its abbreviation NOTE: Author is also known as an authority. A.k.a., author citation
	The straightleaf rush is Juncus orthophyllus Coville. The European meadow rush is Juncus inflexus L. Gaylussacia baccata (Wangenh.) K.Koch Nereis diversicolor Müller
	Rule: When two authors jointly publish a name, use the Latin et or the ampersand symbol (&) to join the names.
	Didymopanax gleansonii Britton et Wilson Didymopanax gleansonii Britton & Wilson
	Rule: If the discovering author is not considered valid, an ex separates (in botany): The initial author from the second valid author(s), or No ex is used, IF the subsequent author makes clear that the description was due to the earlier author (and that the earlier author accepted the name). the first author is listed alone Indicates that the initial author has since published in a valid publication [Zoology] The second author precedes the first, the exact opposite of botanic usage and includes the date.
	Botany Andropogon aromaticus Sieber ex Schult Indicates that Josef Schultes validly published this binomial (in 1824), but his description was based on an earlier description by Franz Sieber. Zoology Nereis diversicolor Müller, 1776 The first scientific name indicates the original genus and date in which Müller first placed this species. Hediste diversicolor (Müller, 1776) The parentheses in the second example indicates that this is not the original genus. Hediste diversicolor (Müller) The third example indicates that the date can be omitted.
	Rule: If the author name is in parentheses (botany only), that indicates that the species was originally assigned to a different genus. NOTE: Zoology does not recognize any change in author, if there is a change within family, genus, or species names.
	Abies procera Rehder forma glauca (Ravenscr.) Rehder Helianthemum coridifolium (Vill.) Cout.
subspecific epithet	Rule: Subspecies always follows the specific epithet, and always uses lowercase and is italicized. Because this uses three names, it’s considered trinomial (botany) or trinomen (zoology). Plural: subspecific epithets, subspecies A.k.a., subspecies, sub-species
Return to top or post contents	Panthera leo persica Indian lion Buteo jamaicensis calurus Western red-tailed hawk Bison bison bison plains bison
	Rule: If the subspecies name is the same as the species name, it can be abbreviated.
	Felis silvestris silvestris Felis s. silvestris Apis mellifera mellifera (German honeybee) Apis m. mellifera Apis mellifera ligustica (common honey bee) Apis m. ligustica
	Rule: Subspecies can be abbreviated and DO NOT italicize: Singular – subsp. (botany), ssp. (zoology) Plural – subsps. (botany), sspp. (zoology)
	The nesting of crows and ravens (Corvus spp.) was monitored.
	Rule: When including the taxon label, “subspecies”, it is NOT italicized and can be abbreviated as: Botany and bacteriology: subsp. (singular and plural) Zoology: ssp. (singular and plural)
	Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis Eucomis autumnalis subsp. autumnalis
variety	Definition: A type of species that evolved naturally and is given a name that refers to some unique characteristic of a plant. Rule: Always use lowercase and always italicize it. Sometimes the abbreviated word, the label, var. (in roman), precedes the variety name.
Return to top or post contents	The insecticide BTK is produced by Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki. The insecticide BTK is produced by Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki. Helianthus annuus annuus Helianthus annuus var. annuus
‘Cultivar’	Definition: Plants that have been propagated via human intervention vegetatively (not from seeds) and ensures that the offspring will retain the characteristics of the parents and are given a name that refers to some unique characteristic of a plant.
Return to top or post contents	Cultivars can begin as: Hybrid plants Sports (plant mutations) The name is dictated by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. Rule: The cultivar name follows the genus and the species: Always in roman type with the first letter capitalized. Sometimes it is placed inside single quotation marks, NEVER double quotation marks It may also be preceded by cv. without quotation marks (and in roman). A.k.a., cultivated variety
	Grevillea ‘Robyn Gordon’ Grevillea rosmarinifolia Rosy Posy Grevillea rosmarinifolia ‘Rosy Posy’ Grevillea rosmarinifolia cv. Rosy Posy Cercis canadensis ‘Forest Pansy’, or Cercis canadensis cv. Forest Pansy
	Rule: A plant can have both variety and a cultivar.
	Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis ‘Sunburst’ The term “inermis” means without thorns and “Sunburst” refers to the bright golden spring leaf color.
(Genus) Hybrid	Definition: When plants in different genera are hybridized, it results in an intergeneric hybrid. Rule: Use the × in front of the genus to indicate it is the hybrid of two genera.
Return to top or post contents	Hedera helix and Fatsia japonica were crossed to create × Fatshedera lizei
(Species) Hybrid	Definition: The offspring of crosses between populations, breeds, or cultivars within a single species or subspecies. Rule: You can use × (the multiplication sign) to indicate it is a hybrid. Technically, the × is butted up against the specific epithet, but it is recognized that it can be confusing for people to read as a multiplication sign instead of an x.
Return to top or post contents	Fragaria chiloensis and Fragaria virginiana were crossed to create Fragaria ×ananassa Fragaria × ananassa
form	Definition: [Botany] An infraspecific taxon that ranks below that of variety. [Zoology] An informal term sometimes used to describe organisms, it is not accepted by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
Return to top or post contents	There are three types of form: Science Taxon italics Abbreviation roman Zoology (informal) form f. Botany forma f. Informal botanical grouping Singular – forma, forma specialis Plural – formae, formae speciales Singular – f. sp. Plural – ff. spp. Rule: [Botany] The forma name is always italicized; the label — forma or f. — is never italicized and comes before the infraspecific epithet (the form name). [Zoology] Neither the label nor the infraspecific epithet is italicized.
	Botany Acanthocalycium spiniflorum forma klimpelianum Acanthocalycium spiniflorum f. klimpelianum Abies procera Rehder forma glauca (Ravenscr.) Rehder Zoology forma geographica f. geogr. Denotes subspecies that interbreed in their area of contact. forma localis f. loc. Similar to f. geogr. but more restricted in area, population size, and/or occurrence. forma alta f. alt. A type of species affected by altitude forma vernalis f. vern. Affected by the temperature or humidity of spring forma aestivalis f. aest. Affected by the temperature or humidity of summer forma autumnalis f. autumn. Affected by the temperature or humidity of autumn forma alba f. alba Of a species, it has white

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C’mon, get it out of your system, bitch, whine, moan . . . which words are your pet peeves? Also, please note that I try to be as accurate as I can, but mistakes happen or I miss something. Email me if you find errors, so I can fix them . . . and we’ll all benefit!

Satisfy your curiosity about other Formatting Tips by exploring its homepage or more generally explore the index of self-editing posts. You may also want to explore Book Layout & Formatting Ideas, Formatting Tips, Grammar Explanations, Linguistics, Publishing Tips, the Properly Punctuated, Word Confusions, Writing Ideas and Resources, and Working Your Website.

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Resources for Taxonomy

Some of these links may be affiliate links, and I will earn a small percentage, if you should buy it. It does not affect the price you pay.

Beaulieu, David. “Differences Between Cultivars and Varieties.” The Spruce.com. Web. 13 January 2019. Accessed 19 April 2019. <https://www.thespruce.com/cultivars-vs-varieties-how-do-they-differ-2132281>.

Emden, Eva van. “Science Writing and Editing: How to write scientific names. Web. 14 March 2011. Accessed 24 April 2019. <http://blog.vancouvereditor.com/2011/03/science-writing-and-editing-scientific.html>.

Haynes, Cindy. “Cultivar versus Variety.” Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. Department of Horticulture. Horticulture and Home Pest News. Web. 6 February 2008. Accessed 19 April 2019. <https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/2008/2-6/CultivarOrVariety.html>.

“How to Write Scientific Names of Plant and Animal Species in Journal Manuscripts (Part 1).” Enago Academy. Web. 23 January 2019. Accessed 19 April 2019. <https://www.enago.com/academy/how-to-write-scientific-names-in-a-research-paper-animals-plants/>.

International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.

International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.

International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (Bacteria) n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.the-icsp.org/publications>.

International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature.

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses publishes several reports including How to Write a Virus Name. <https://talk.ictvonline.org/>.

International Plant Names Index (IPNI).

Mozley, Sam. s_mozley AT ncsu DOT edu. “How to Write Scientific Names of Animals.” North Carolina State University. Web. 21 May 2002. Accessed 24 April 2019. <https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/zo150/mozley/nomencla.html>.

Scoville, Heather. “Levels of Taxonomy Used in Biology.” ThoughtCo. 21 September 2018. Accessed 7 April 2019. <https://www.thoughtco.com/levels-of-taxonomy-1224606>.

“Taxonomic Names: Format them right!” Precision Science Editing. Accessed 6 April 2019. <http://precisionscienceediting.com/tips/taxonomic-names-format-them-right/>.

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Resources: Style Guides

Some of these links may be affiliate links, and I will earn a small percentage, if you should buy it. It does not affect the price you pay.

Butcher, Judith, Caroline Drake, and Maureen Leach. Butcher’s Copy-editing, 4th Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. <URL>/DatabaseName/Kindle/Particular Library/Google.

Council of Science Editors, ed(s). Scientific Style and Format, the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. University of Chicago Press, 2014.

University of Chicago Press Staff, ed(s). The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th Edition. University of Chicago Press, 2017.

Waddingham, Anne. Oxford University Press, ed(s). New Hart’s Rules: The Oxford Style Guide, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

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Pinterest Photo Credits:

Taxonomic Ranking by Tessaelilley is under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license, via Wikimedia Commons.

Revised as of 22 Apr 2024
By: Kathy Davie