Linguistics: Theoretical Phonology

Revised as of
10 Mar 2023

While phonology and phonetics are close, with both concerned with the production of sound, phonology is into the abstract of sound production.

In phonology, a p is always pronounced p, hence the abstract. In phonetics, there might be 1,000 ways that p is pronounced.

Phonology also explores how the mind organizes speech sounds, how it uses those sounds to convey meaning.

Other Posts on Theoretical Linguistics

Other posts on the primary theoretical categories can be explored:

• Intro to Theoretical Linguistics
• Generative – the theory that human language speakers have an idea of what the rules are and are able to learn in a short time with little effort
• Phonetics – the study of the physical production, acoustics, and hearing of speech sounds
• Pragmatics – the study of how language is used (in context)
• Semantics – the study of words and meanings
• Syntax – the study of how words and phrases make sentences

Linguistics is . . .

. . . the systematic study of the nature, structure, and variation of language (of which grammar is a part), which describes how people use language. For the writer, how words are used (or spelled!) determines a character’s social and educational level and the time period for the story.

As I discover more examples, also-known-ases, and additions, I’ll update this post. If you have a suggestion, I would appreciate you contacting me. If you found this post on “Theoretical Phonology” interesting, consider subscribing to KD Did It, if you’d like to track this post for future updates.

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Phonology
Part of Speech: Theoretical Linguistics
Definition: General analytical tools, not language-specific ones, that are the abstract study of how the function, behavior, and organization of how speech sounds are organized in the mind and used to convey meaning, the rules for their combination, and how they encode meaning. Rule: No matter how a letter is pronounced, it is always that letter. POST CONTENTS Phonological Alternation Phonotactic Phonotactic Constraint Consonant Cluster Vowel Sequence Syllable Monosyllable Grammatical Monosyllable Lexical Monosyllable Bisyllable Multisyllable Trisyllable Polysllable Quadrisyllable 6 Kinds of Syllables Closed Syllable Consonant-le Syllable (v-le) Diphthong Syllable (vv) Open Syllable R-controlled syllable (vr) Vowel-consonant-e Syllabic Organization Onset Complex Onset Zero Onset Body Rime Nucleus Coda Prosody Acoustic Measure Duration Dynamics Fundamental Frequency Intensity Loud Spectral Characteristics Auditory Measure Connected Speech Intonation Pitch Pitch Prominence Pitch Range Pitch Reset Reduction Rhythm Rhythm and Meter Rhythm and Parallelism Rhythm and Syllables Speed Stress Timbre Tone
Phonological Alternation	Definition: How sounds replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, for example, syllable structure, stress, feature geometry, and intonation.
Return to top or post contents	Alternation is equivalent to allomorphy in morphology. A form (word) involved in an alternation is called an alternant. The customary symbol for alternation is ~. A.k.a. alternance
	sane sanity electric electricity atom atomic bleed bleeding knife knives leaf leaves fez fezzes glove gloves
Phonotactic	Definition: How sounds are strung together and why. By means of phonotactic constraints, it defines permissible syllable structure: Consonant Clusters Vowel Sequences Credit to: Nordquist
Phonotactic Constraint	Definition: The rules and restrictions concerning the types of sounds, i.e., how many consonants can be combined, that are allowed to occur next to each other or in particular positions in the word.
Return to top or post contents	Constraints can evolve over time, e.g., the k in knife and knee used to be pronounced. Today, the k is silent. Just as the g is silent in gneiss. One of the reasons that spelling can be so difficult in English. Constraints on English phonotactics include: All syllables have a nucleus No consonants with doubled letters, e.g., egg girl, evenness, little, midday, etc. No onset /ŋ/ No /h/ in the syllable coda No affricates or /h/ in complex onsets The first consonant in a complex onset must be an obstruent (e.g. stop; combinations such as *ntat or *rkoop, with a sonorant, are not allowed) The second consonant in a complex onset must not be a voiced obstruent, e.g., *zdop does not occur If the first consonant in a complex onset is not /s/, the second must be a liquid or glide Every subsequence contained within a sequence of consonants must obey all the relevant phonotactic rules (the substring principle rule) No glides in syllable codas (excluding the offglides of diphthongs) The second consonant in a complex coda must not be /r/, /ŋ/, /ɜ/, or /ð/ (compare asthma, typically pronounced /ǽzm#601;/ or /ǽsm#601;/, but rarely /ǽzðmə/) If the second consonant in a complex coda is voiced, so is the first An obstruent following /m/ or /ŋ/ in a coda must be homorganic with the nasal Two obstruents in the same coda must share voicing (compare kids /kˈdz/ with kits /kˈts/) NOTE: Phonotactics is known to affect second language vocabulary acquisition.
Consonant Cluster	Definition: A group of consonants which have no intervening vowel.
Return to top or post contents	Naturally, there are two sides to what constitutes a cluster: Applies only to consonant clusters that occur within one syllable Applies to consonant sequences across syllable boundaries A.k.a. consonant compound, consonant sequence
	splits /spl/ and /ts/ extra /ks/ and /tr/ /kstr/
Vowel Sequence	Definition: Two vowels next to each other which make two separate sounds.
Return to top or post contents	coerces courses create diet eon quiet science
Syllable	Definition: A unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. They can influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter, and its stress patterns.
Return to top or post contents	Syllables include: Monosyllable Bisyllable Multisyllabic Trisyllable Polysyllable Quadrisyllablec Syllabic Organization 6 Construction Types Closed syllable Open syllable Vowel-consonant-e syllable Diphthong syllable R-controlled syllable Consonant-le syllable
	cat-fish dish-cloth wa-ter ig-nite sun-tan
Monosyllable	Definition: A word or utterance of one syllable. There are two types of monosyllables: Grammatical Lexical
Grammatical Monosyllable	Definition: A one syllable utterance that means nothing. A.k.a. functional
Return to top or post contents	a the
Lexical Monosyllable	Definition: A one syllable utterance that means something.
Return to top or post contents	big cat dog deal run
Bisyllable	Definition: A word or utterance of two syllables. A.k.a. disyllable
Return to top or post contents	clockwork normal parrot pencil simple water
Multisyllable	Definition: A word or utterance of two to three or more syllables.
Return to top or post contents	children chicken melting shampoo tonight
Trisyllable	Definition: A word or utterance of only three syllables.
Return to top or post contents	adventure assistance inferno businessman disposal edition ownership
Polysyllable	Definition: A word or utterance of three or more syllables.
Return to top or post contents	adequate amazement attention attractive average banana bicycle blindingly glistening library palatial
Quadrisyllable	Definition: A word or utterance of only four syllables.
Return to top or post contents	accommodate championship directory expenditure jurisdiction speculation
6 Kinds of Syllables
Closed Syllable (vc)	Definition: Ends in a consonant. A.k.a. checked syllable
Return to top or post contents	cat on red went
Consonant-le Syllable (v-le)	Definition: There is no vowel sound. The silent e at the end of the syllable is the only vowel. Only the consonant and the l are pronounced.
Return to top or post contents	maple purple table
Diphthong Syllable (vv)	Definition: Usually has two adjacent vowels that are pronounced together. A.k.a. vowel team, gliding vowel
Return to top or post contents	eight fight grow lion tail
Open Syllable (v)	Definition: Ends with a vowel. A.k.a. free syllable
Return to top or post contents	a cry go I me
R-controlled syllable (vr)	Definition: Always has at least one vowel followed by r.
Return to top or post contents	bird ear for fur
Vowel-consonant-e Syllable (vce)	Definition: Ends in a final silent e with a consonant just before the silent e. A.k.a. bossy e, CVCE, magic e, silent e, sneaky e
Return to top or post contents	cute fine home
Syllabic Organization	Definition: Syllables are made up of an onset (any consonants before the rime) and a rime.
Return to top or post contents	Syllables have the following internal segmental structure, a.k.a. phonological tree: Onset Rime is composed of: Nucleus Coda
	Word Phoneme Onset Nucleus Coda twelfths /twɛlfθs/ /tw/ /ɛ/ /lfθs/
Onset	Definition: Onsets are always consonants and are the first letter of any word. Complex onset Zero onset
Return to top or post contents	It may consist of one or more sound segments that are identified using consonant clusters. A.k.a. anlaut, blend
	c in cat b in bird l in ladder
Complex Onset	Definition: A consonant cluster consisting of either two or three consonants. Pre-initial consonant – first of a 3-consonant cluster Initial consonant – second of a 3-consonant cluster Final consonant – third of a 3-consonant cluster A.k.a. consonant compound, consonant sequence
Return to top or post contents	Word Complex Onset split spl- strengths str-
Zero Onset	Definition: A syllable without an onset, nothing where the onset would be.
Return to top or post contents	actual eye I it
Body	Definition: Includes everything up to and including the vowel sound. Body is paired with the coda — any consonants that come after the vowel sound (or the last sound). A.k.a. core
Return to top or post contents	Word Body Coda black bla- -ck
Rime	Definition: The obligatory string of letters that follows the onset, the nucleus and the coda. It’s represented by the right branch of the phonological tree. A.k.a. postvocalic position, rhyme, syllable rime (combination of nucleus + coda)
Return to top or post contents	Word Onset Rime cat c- -at bat b- -at swim sw- -im
Nucleus	Definition: The vowel sound(s) in the nucleus are the key component of all syllables. It usually contains one vowel — a monophthong or a diphthong (a.k.a. nuclear vowel) — but may be a syllabic consonant and is required in every syllable, which may consist of the nucleus alone or the nucleus may have other sounds attached to it, either in front or in back of it. The liquid and nasal consonants can also act as the nucleus of a syllable. A.k.a. peak, syllabic peak
Return to top or post contents	Word Nucleus hmm The nasal consonant /ṃ/
Coda	Definition: The optional final part of a syllable, placed after its nucleus, and usually composed of one or more consonants. Codas may consist of one or more sound segments. A.k.a. auslaut, syllable-final
Return to top or post contents	Word Coda salts /s/ glee
Prosody	Definition: An umbrella term covering elements of speech that are not vowels or consonants, but the properties of syllables and larger units of speech including stress, rhythm, phrasing, and intonation.
Return to top or post contents	It makes it easier for the listener to figure out where words begin and end, so that they don’t just sound like continuous meaningless speech. Like it does when you’re listening to a foreign language! How language functions and is organized differs across languages. Prosody distinguishes between: Acoustic Measure Auditory Measure Since prosody provides patterns of rhythm and sound in poetry, you may want to explore the word play of prosody as well or the post “Paean vs Paeon vs Peon“.
Acoustic Measure	Definition: The physical properties of the sound wave that may be measured objectively.
Return to top or post contents	The variables include (but are not limited to): Duration Dynamics Fundamental Frequency Intensity Loudness Spectral Characteristics
Duration	Definition: Measured in time units such as milliseconds or seconds and includes pauses and rhythm. A.k.a. increased length
Dynamics	Definition: The subjective degrees of loudness and softness of sounds indicated in speech. The production of sound results from a complex interplay of autonomic and central nervous activity as well as the dynamics of laryngeal vocal fold (or cord) vibration resulting from high velocity air forced from the lungs through narrow anatomical passageways. A.k.a. increased loudness
Fundamental Frequency	Definition: Experienced as pitch. See also frequency vs amplitude.
Intensity	Definition: Physical, it takes account of both amplitude and frequency. Use decibels to compare/measure the intensities of two different sounds. Intensity itself is measured in watts. A.k.a. sound intensity
Loudness	Definition: Psychological, it is a subjective sensation of how loud or soft a sound is perceived, its intensity or acoustic intensity, via the amplitude of the vibrations.
Return to top or post contents	The perception of loudness increases more slowly than the actual increase in intensity. The greater the intensity, the louder we perceive the sound to be The lower the intensity, the quieter we perceive the sound to be More specifically it’s the effect created when syllables or words are said with extra effort, indicating stressed and accented syllables, and can in addition indicate emphasis. Loudness is subjective as some speakers habitually speak quietly, and others speak more loudly, as well as different English accents also vary in the acceptable degree of loudness: American English is spoken very loudly Southern English is softer than American but louder than most Scottish English Scottish English is generally louder than Scottish English from the Highlands and Islands Within any accent, speech which is produced at or above the acceptable limits of loudness usually conveys a high emotional state, such as anger. There are three ways to measure loudness: Decibel – a logarithmic scale that provides an objective measure of the intensity level of a given sound with a meter Phon – a subjective measure that indicates an individual’s perception of loudness Sone – a subjective measure based on data obtained from subjects who were asked to judge the loudness of pure tones and noise It is a contributing factor to tempo. Credit to: Accoustic
Spectral Characteristics	Definition: The distribution of energy at different parts of the audible frequency range.
Auditory Measure	Definition: The subjective impressions produced in the mind of the listener.
Return to top or post contents	The major variables include (but are not limited to): Length of sounds (varying between short and long) Loudness, or prominence (varying between soft and loud) – the amount of volume used when speaking. Whispering requires very little volume while shouting requires considerably more volume. Timbre or voice quality (quality of sound) It includes suprasegmentals such as: Connected Speech Intonation Pitch Reduction Rhythm Speed Stress Tone Tempo Most studies of prosody have been based on auditory analysis using auditory scales. Such elements can reflect: The emotional state of the speaker The form of the utterance — statement, question, or command The presence of irony or sarcasm Emphasis, contrast, and focus It may otherwise reflect other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary.
Connected Speech	Definition: The adjustments native speakers make between words, “linking” them so they become easier to pronounce.
Return to top or post contents	Words that English learners might easily understand in isolation can sometimes be unrecognizable in connected speech. Likewise, English learners trying to pronounce each word separately and distinctly, as it is written, sometimes make it harder for native listeners to understand them. Credit to: Mistretta
	wanna gonna rock ‘n roll ’em dem ‘im
Intonation	Definition: The music of a language and how it rises and falls over a block of speech — sentence, phrase, group of sentences. The meaning of speech will change according to the tone and intonation.
Return to top or post contents	Intonation works together with stress and pitch, as well as a combination of variables (sometimes known as tonality, tonicity, and tone; collectively as “the three T’s”): The division of speech into units The highlighting of particular words and syllables The choice of pitch movement, e.g., fall or rise Slowing of tempo It can convey meaning, attitude, or an opinion. In American English, statements tend to start higher in pitch and end lower in pitch; questions go up in pitch at the end. To sound natural in any language, you need to use the speech pattern of that language. Intonation also helps the listener know what is ahead. A.k.a. pitch pattern, stress pattern
	Going up in pitch, a question can convey an an open attitude or a concern for the person. Going down in pitch, a statement conveys a negative judgement. Statement Response I’m dropping out of school. Are you serious? Are you serious? You can’t be serious.
	Prosodic Features Provide Boundaries Between Intonation Units
	Rule: Pauses are the speech equivalent of the comma that divides the sentence into blocks.
	They invited Bob and Bill and Al got rejected is ambiguous. Remove the ambiguity by including a pause with a change in intonation: They invited Bob and Bill, and Al got rejected. “They invited Bob, and Bill and Al got rejected.
Pitch	Definition: The degree of highness or lowness of a tone with the quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it, as it applies to speech and not writing.
Return to top or post contents	It is a contributing factor to intonation, tempo, and tone. The use of pitch helps listeners notice the most important word in a thought group and usually goes down to show the end of a sentence — except for Yes/No questions. Other aspects of pitch include: Pitch Prominence Pitch Range Pitch Reset Physically, some people naturally have a high-pitched voice while in general men usually have a low pitch while women and children tend to have higher-pitched voices. Emotional factors can also affect the pitch of someone’s voice. People may speak in a lower pitch when they are tired while surprise may make them speak in a higher pitch than usual. Pitch and intonation are often used interchangeably. Also see pitch under rhythm in prosody. A.k.a. voice pitch
Pitch Prominence	Definition: A major pitch movement (higher or lower) on the stressed syllable of the focus word gives emphasis to that word and thereby highlights it for the listener, indicating meaning, new information, contrast, or emotion. When pitch prominence is the major factor, it is often called accent rather than stress.
Pitch Range	Definition: Shifting one’s spoken intonation from low to high provides meaning in certain contexts, i.e., excitement, sadness, etc.
Pitch Reset	Definition: The speaker’s pitch level returns to the level typical of the onset of a new intonation unit.
Reduction	Definition: Helps highlight important syllables in yet another way by de-emphasizing unstressed syllables. A.k.a. phonetic reduction
Return to top or post contents	Rule: The vowel in an unstressed syllable is reduced in both length and clarity.
	The most common reduced vowel sound in English is the schwa, /ə/, always a short, completely relaxed and open sound (like the second syllable in “pizza”).
	Rule: Contractions are another example of reduction. They reduce the number of syllables, and eliminate some vowels completely.
	I am / I’m you are / you’re she is / she’s
Rhythm	Definition: The sense of movement in speech that comes from the combination of stressed words, unstressed words, accent, and pauses in a phrase or sentence, i.e., pitch, loudness, and tempo. A steady, unvarying rhythm makes speech sound unnatural and robotic — think monotone.
Return to top or post contents	Rule: English is a stress-timed language, and the basic unit of English rhythm is the syllable. In phrases and sentences: Content words (words that have meaning) are usually stressed. Function words (words with grammatical function only) are not usually stressed. Every language has its own rhythm, and people tend to apply their native rhythm to other languages. Credit to: Nordquist
	“Oriental luxury goods — jade, silk, gold, spices, vermillion, jewels — had formerly come overland by way of the Caspian Sea, and now that this route had been cut by the Huns, a few daring Greek sea captains were sailing from Red Sea ports, catching the trade winds and loading up at Ceylon” (Brooks).
Rhythm and Meter	Definition: The natural rhythmical movements of colloquial speech heightened, organized, and regulated so that pattern emerges from the relative phonetic haphazard of ordinary utterance.
Return to top or post contents	“To me, fair friend, you never can be old, For as you were when first your eye I eyed, Such seems your beauty still. Three winters cold Have from the forests shook three summers’ pride,” – Sonnet 104.
Rhythm and Parallelism	Definition: Elements of a sentence or list should echo each other in length, number of syllables, and rhythm. Nonparallelism will kill the rhythm.
Return to top or post contents	Parallelism Nonparallelism I came to bury Caesar, not to praise him. I came for the purpose of burying Caesar, not to praise him. A government of the people, by the people, for the people A government of the people, that the people created, for the people Credit to: Hale
Rhythm and Syllables	Definition: A combination of stressed and unstressed syllables produced at roughly regular intervals of time.
Return to top or post contents	Syllables in bold are stressed. “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” – William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18 “Tell me not, in mournful numbers” – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “Psalm of Life”. “This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,” – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Evangeline. Credit to: Rhythm
Speed	Definition: The pace of speech, or how fast or slow we speak. A fast rate of speech can have a negative effect on a listener’s ability to understand the message we are trying to communicate.
Return to top or post contents	A slow drawl An auctioneer’s speed
Stress	Definition: The force or emphasis (signal) used on a sound, syllable, or word in comparison to other sounds, syllables, or words.
Return to top or post contents	A stressed syllable in a word has more emphasis than other syllables in the word. Stress is frequently used in conjunction with intonation. Signals include: The length and clarity of the vowel Reducing the length and clarity of the vowel Stressed syllable variables include: By themselves In combination Stress cues, in order of importance, include: Pitch prominence Increased length (duration) Increased loudness (dynamics) Differences in timbre Stress can also be applied to individual words, a.k.a. lexical stress, word stress. A.k.a. prosodic stress, sentence stress
	Rule: Intonation and stress work together to highlight important words or syllables for contrast and focus, sometimes referred to as the accentual function of prosody. It differentiates between: Declarative and question sentences Question tags use an intonation to indicate if the speaker is looking for agreement. A rising pitch is often used when a yes/no question is asked.
	John’s gone home. John’s gone home? “I never said she stole my money.” “I never said she stole my money.” “I never said she stole my money.” “I never said she stole my money.” “I never said she stole my money.” “I never said she stole my money.” “I never said she stole my money.”
Tempo	Definition: A person’s speaking rate or rate of speech, and it varies between and within speakers.
Return to top or post contents	It is a constituent of rhythm, combining: Intonation Loudness Pitch Speed Tempo sets up a listener’s expectations about a speaker, to signal their attitude towards situations, people, and things; to hint at their emotional state and/or personality types; and, determine their geographical region, ethnicity, gender, and age. While an average rate of speed is not determined, in general, the syllable is considered the best way to measure tempo. More specifically: Syllables per second (syll/sec or s/s) Average syllable duration (ASD; msec) Phones per second Average phone duration (in ms) A.k.a. speed tempo
	Fast Slow Meaning: happiness anger con artist New Yorker ++ laidback sleepy content Southerner ++ Speakers: sales people lawyers hustlers and con artists people in a rush nervous people upset people elderly people teachers tired people preacher/priest doctor
Timbre	Definition: A stress associated with aspects of vowel quality, the sound quality of the segment.
Return to top or post contents	Unstressed vowels tend to be centralized relative to stressed vowels, which are normally more peripheral in quality. A.k.a. tone color, tone quality
	Examples include: light flat smooth smoky breathy rough
Tone	Definition: Conveys emotion via voice, using a particular pitch pattern on a syllable used to make semantic distinctions, add functional meaning. It adds emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. See also duration, amplitude, and fundamental frequency (F0).
	Tone can show anger, impatience, boredom, excitement, etc. Think about the expression “I didn’t like his tone of voice”.

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C’mon, get it out of your system, bitch, whine, moan . . . which words are your pet peeves? Also, please note that I try to be as accurate as I can, but mistakes happen or I miss something. Email me if you find errors, so I can fix them . . . and we’ll all benefit!

Satisfy your curiosity about other Linguistics posts by exploring its homepage or more generally explore the index of self-editing posts. You may also want to explore Book Layout & Formatting Ideas, Formatting Tips, Grammar Explanations, the Properly Punctuated, Word Confusions, Writing Ideas and Resources, and Working Your Website.

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Resources for Theoretical Linguistics on Phonology

“Accent (sociolinguistics).” Wikipedia. 29 Dec 2020. Web. 29 Dec 2020. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accent_(sociolinguistics)>. This page includes links to audio files on accents.

“Acoustic Analysis: The Sound Spectrograph.” Topics in Phonetics. Linguistics 401. Lecture 3. Simon Fraser University. n.d. Web. 27 Feb 2021. <http://www.sfu.ca/~mcrobbie/Ling401/Lecture3.pdf>.

Bache, Carl and Niels Davidsen-Nielsen. Mastering English. Walter De Gruyter, 1998.

Brooks, Cleanth and Robert Penn Warren. Modern Rhetoric. 3rd ed. Harcourt, 1972.

Cassin, Barbara. Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon. Princeton, 2014.

Chung, Sandy and Geoff Pullum. “Grammar.” Linguistic Society. n.d. Web. 23 March 2019. <https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/grammar>

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Inflection.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 Oct 2016. Web. 21 Feb 2021. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/inflection>.

“Ejective Consonant.” Consonants. Psychology Wiki. n.d. Web. 28 Dec 2020. <https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Ejective_consonant>.

Emily. “A Phoneme, A Grapheme, A Morpheme: What’s the Difference?” The Literacy Nest. Aug 2019. Web. 25 Feb 2021. <https://www.theliteracynest.com/2019/08/a-phoneme-a-grapheme-a-morpheme.html>.

“English Vowel.” SlideShare.net. n.d. Web. 27 Dec 2020. <https://www.slideshare.net/khandokarmazharul/english-vowel-monothongs-diphthong-triphthongs>.

Gramley, Dr Vivian. “Articulatory-Acoustic-Auditory Phonetics.” Universität Bielefeld. n.d. Web. 26 Dec 2020. <https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/personen/vgramley/teaching/HTHS/review.pdf>.

Kessler, Brett and Rebecca Treiman. “Syllable Structure and the Distribution of Phonemes in English Syllables.” Washington University. 6 Nov 2002. Web. 23 Jan 2021. <http://spell.psychology.wustl.edu/SyllStructDistPhon/CVC.html>.

Kittelstad, Kit. “Diphthong Examples.” Your Dictionary. n.d. Web. 27 Dec 2020. <https://examples.yourdictionary.com/diphthong-examples.html>.

Klammer, Thomas P., Muriel R. Schulz, and Angela Della Volpe. Analyzing English Grammar. 4th Ed. Pearson, 2004.

Klofstad, Casey A., Stephen Nowicki, and Rincy C. Anderson. “How Voice Pitch Influences Our Choice of Leaders.” American Scientist. n.d. Web. 27 Jan 2021. <https://www.americanscientist.org/article/how-voice-pitch-influences-our-choice-of-leaders>.

“Loudness.” School of Critical Studies. College of Arts. University of Glasgow. n.d. Web. 27 Dec 2020. <https://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/STELLA/LILT/loudness.htm>.

Mistretta, Stefani. “The Top-Down Approach: American English Pronunciation.” Pronunciation in Action. n.d. Web. 27 Jan 2021. <https://www.pronunciationinaction.com/top-down>.

⸻. “Constituent: Definition and Examples in Grammar: Getting to the Root of a Sentence or Phrase.” ThoughtCo. 23 July 2018. Web. 20 Feb 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-constituency-grammar-1689792>.

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⸻. “Rhythm in Phonetics, Poetics, and Style.” ThoughtCo. 4 Nov 2019. Web. 22 Feb 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/rhythm-phonetics-poetics-and-style-1692065>.

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Parsons, Chris. “The Difference Between Consonants and Vowels.” Selfabet. 23 Apr 2015. Web. 25 Feb 2021. <https://www.spelfabet.com.au/2015/04/the-difference-between-consonants-and-vowels/>.

“Phonotactics.” Wikipedia. 11 Jan 2021. Web. 22 Jan 2021. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics>.

“Rhythm.” Literary Devices. n.d. Web. 21 Feb 2021. <https://literarydevices.net/rhythm/>.

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“What is Phonology?” All About Linguistics. n.d. Web. 28 Dec 2020. <https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branches-of-linguistics/phonology/>.

Williamson, Graham. “Tempo.” Voice. SLTinfo. 31 Jan 2014. Web. 27 Dec 2020. <https://www.sltinfo.com/tempo/>.

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Frequencies by GDJ is under the Pixabay License, via Pixabay.