Linguistics: Theoretical Pragmatics

Posted April 8, 2021 by Kathy Davie in Author Resources, Linguistics, Self-Editing, Writing

Revised as of
15 Mar 2023


Pinterest pin for Theoretical Pragmatics

In simple terms, pragmatics studies how meaning is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener, in actual situations.

Yep, it’s “communication”, because a conversation can be verbal, written, action, or symbols.

One of the keys is that the meanings of words and phrases, in everyday language, are constantly implied and not explicitly stated. It also depends on the listener understanding the context.

Part of that implication is the difference between “what is said” and “what is meant”. To make it even more complex, the same word can have different meanings in different settings.

Hey, can you please pass the salt?

I like that comment Professor Jenny Thomas (Thomas) makes about pragmatics being a negotiation of meaning between speaker and listener. The context and meaning of an utterance.

That salt? The literal interpretation asks if you can physically perform this task. The pragmatic, implied, meaning is that you pass the salt to the person requesting it.

NOTE: The primary linguists on Pragmatics are H.P. Grice, John R. Searle, William C. Mann, and John L. Austin. Just so’s you know, they agree and disagree, use similar or different terms, and put subcategories everywhere.

“When a diplomat says yes, he means perhaps;
“When he says perhaps, he means no;
“When he says no, he is not a diplomat.”
– Voltaire, Escandell, 1993.

Just to warn you, I’m not a linguist. I’m an editor, and this part of theoretical linguistics has got to be the most disorganized load of “knowledge” I’ve ever come across. And that’s the last of the simple terms . . .

Other Posts on Theoretical Linguistics

Other posts on the primary theoretical categories can be explored:

  • Intro to Theoretical Linguistics
  • Generative – the theory that human language speakers have an idea of what the rules are and are able to learn in a short time with little effort
  • Phonetics – the study of the physical production, acoustics, and hearing of speech sounds
  • Phonology – the abstract study of the sound systems of languages in their cognitive aspects
  • Semantics – the study of words and meanings
  • Syntax – the study of how words and phrases make sentences

Linguistics is . . .

. . . the systematic study of the nature, structure, and variation of language (of which grammar is a part), which describes how people use language. For the writer, how words are used (or spelled!) determines a character’s social and educational level and the time period for the story.

As I discover more examples, also-known-ases, and additions, I’ll update this post. If you have a suggestion, I would appreciate you contacting me. If you found this post on “Theoretical Pragmatics” interesting, consider subscribing to KD Did It, if you’d like to track this post for future updates.

Return to top

Pragmatics
Part of Speech: Linguistics, Theoretical
Definition: The study of how people understand the relationships between words, people engaged in the conversation, and the context of words by interpreting the meaning based on the manner, place, time, etc., of an utterance, including:


POST CONTENTS
Near-side vs Far-Side Pragmatics
Four Aspects of Pragmatics are:

Speech Act TheoryConversational ImplicatureRhetorical Structure Theory (RST)Reference Management

Return to top or post contents
Ambiguous Sentence Could mean . . .
You have a green light. Your room uses a green light.

You can drive through that green light.

Your body has a green glow around it.

Go ahead.

Cool, you have a green-tinted light bulb.

I went to the bank. You went to deposit or take out money.

You had a picnic on the river.

Sherlock saw the man with binoculars. Sherlock observed the man by using binoculars.

Sherlock observed a man who was holding binoculars.

Near-side vs Far-side Pragmatics
Near-side Far-side
  • What language the speaker intends to use
  • The meaning they’re using
  • To whom the speaker refers
  • How pronouns are used
    • The speaker, time, and location determine the interpretation of I, you, now, etc.
  • What the speaker intends to achieve by saying what he does
  • Focused on what happens beyond saying
Rule: Needs the facts about the:
  • Speaker’s beliefs
  • Conversation they are engaged in
  • What belief they share
  • Focus/content of the conversation
  • Relevant social institutions which affect what a person accomplishes in or by saying what he does
Meshes semantics and pragmatics

Credit to: Sindhu
Speech Act Theory
Definition: Acts of communication using language or motion ￫ when words are actions: ordering, apologizing, sentencing, marrying, running, promising, writing, etc.

Two ways of performing speech acts:

  1. Direct Speech Act
  2. Indirect Speech Act
 Three types of speech acts:

A.k.a. communicative act

Credit to: Pragmatics
A Speech Act includes . . .
Asking for a glass of water.

Promising to drink a glass of water.

Threatening to drink a glass of water.

Ordering someone to drink a glass of water, etc.

Ask for a glass of water by pointing to a pitcher and miming the act of drinking.

Distinguishing Among Speech Acts
Rule: The context or the setting will determine the force of a speech act, as well as using their judgement and background knowledge of the language and the culture.

Credit to: Schiffman
The Queen of Hearts: “Off with their heads!”

If someone else says it in another setting, it has a different force.
Two Ways of Performing Speech Acts:
Direct Speech Act Indirect Speech Act
Definition: Bluntly reports the exact words that were said or written.

Direct speech also uses performative verbs in the three types.

A.k.a. oratio recta, reported direct

Definition: Communicates in a roundabout manner, expecting the listener to understand the obliquely stated context.

A.k.a. implicit speech act, oratio obliqua, reported indirect speech

There are three types of direct and indirect speech types:

  1. Assertion
  2. Order and Request
  3. Question
Assertion Definition: Uses a declarative sentence committing the speaker to convey information that is true or false.

They refer to statements, descriptions, classifications, explanations, and clarifications.

A.k.a. assertive

Return to top or post contents
Direct Indirect
Jenny got an A on the test. I’d like to know if Jenny got an A on the test.

I wonder whether Jenny got an A on the test.

Performative Verb
I assert that Jenny got an A on the test.
I advise you to keep up the payments on your car. He advises you to keep up the payments on your car.
I now pronounce you husband and wife. He had pronounced them husband and wife.
I name this ship Sojourner. I named this ship Sojourner.
I dub thee Sir Galahad. He was dubbed Sir Galahad.
Order and Request Definition: Uses an imperative sentence type to cause others to behave in certain ways.

Return to top or post contents
Direct Indirect
Get an A on that test! I hope you get an A on the test.
Please close the window.

Close the window.

 Could you close the window?

Would you mind closing the window?

I would like you to close the window.

The window is still open!

I must have asked you a hundred times to keep that window closed!

Performative Verb
I order you to close the window.
Question Definition: An interrogative sentence type that elicits information.

Return to top or post contents
Direct Indirect
Did Jenny get an A on that test? Do you know if Jenny got an A on the test?

I’d like to know if Jenny got an A on the test.

I wonder whether Jenny got an A on the test.

Performative Verb
I ask you who took the photos. I had asked him who had taken the photos.
Locutionary Speech Act Definition: The basic act of utterance, of producing a meaningful linguistic expression, a.k.a. sentence, usually has a purpose:

Return to top or post contents

 When performing a locutionary act, you are:

  • Asking or answering a question
  • Giving some information or an assurance or a warning
  • Announcing a verdict or an intention
  • Pronouncing a sentence
  • Making an appointment, an appeal, or a criticism
  • Making an identification or giving a description

There are three types of force typically cited in Speech Act Theory:
Is there any salt?

Asks a question about the salt.

John claims that Mary is happy.
Utterance Act Definition: What is actually said by a speaker in words and sentences. And not necessarily meaning to try to affect anyone else.

Return to top or post contents

 The utterance doesn’t have to make sense. It could be a sentence in a foreign language you are uttering to practice pronunciation.

An utterance can also be writing or signals. Alston calls the nonlinguistic devices that one can use in these types of acts sentence surrogates.

A.k.a. sentential act

Did the paper arrive?

We’re heading out to church.

Je suis ravi de vous rencontrer.

Hope you have a good time.

Propositional Act Definition: However the sentence is constructed, as long as the same content is in it, it’s propositional.

Return to top or post contents

 Will John leave the room?

John will leave the room.

John, leave the room!

Would that John left the room.

If John will leave the room, I’ll leave also.”

Illocutionary Speech Act Definition: An utterance act saying something and doing something at the same time by way of conventions, using sentences that are all affirmative, declarative, and in the present tense and issuing a message.

Return to top or post contents

 A literal illocutionary speech act is when the statement is the actual meaning.

A non-literal illocutionary speech act is when the statement does not mean what it says but something else instead.

In these types of sentences, the speaker is the subject who, by uttering the sentence, is accomplishing some additional action, such as daring, resigning, nominating, etc.

Three types of performing illocutionary acts: Two types of illocutionary speech acts:
  1. Rhetic Act
    1. Deixis
  2. Phatic Act
  3. Phonic Act
  1. Communicative
  2. Conventional

A.k.a. illocutionary force

Credit to: Searle, 47.
It’s gonna rain.

Makes the person hearing this prepare and/or wonder if it will really rain.

A judge sentences someone.

Incitement at a protest rally that results in rioting.

Is there any salt?

A request for salt.

The black cat is stupid.

He urged me to shoot her.
Rhetic Act Definition: Characterized, roughly, as the act of uttering the words in a sentence with a specific meaning and reference.

Performance of an act using those phatic words with a certain more-or-less definite sense and reference.

Credit to: Austin
Deixis Definition: A reference to a person, object, event, an action in time, social relationships, locate parts of a text in relation to other parts, which relies on the situational context.

Return to top or post contents

 Five major types of diectic markers:

  1. Person – people involved in or referred to in communications
  2. Place – how language shows the relationship between space and participant location in the test. Here, now, this, that, there, in front of, at our place, etc., are keywords.
  3. Time – time relative to the time of speaking. Here, now, today, tomorrow, then, yesterday, etc., are keywords.
  4. Textual – keeps track of reference. In the following chapter, but, first, etc., are keywords.
  5. Social – codes the social relationships between speakers and addressee/audience. Honorifics, titles of addresses, pronouns, etc., are keywords.

Two kinds of social deixis:

  • Absolute – forms attached to a social role. Your Honor, Mr President, Your Grace, Madam, etc., are keywords.
  • Relational – locates persons in relation to the speaker and not their role in society. My cousin, you, her, etc., are keywords.
Sorry I missed you.

I’m in my other office.

Back in an hour.

Rule: A reference can include first and second person pronouns.
mine my you your
yours we ours us
Rule: A reference can include demonstrative articles.
this that these those
Rule: A reference can include expressions of time and place, AND we need to know when or where the utterance was said.
“I’m over here!”

You would need to know who “I” referred to, as well as where “here” is.
Phatic Act Definition: Uttering of certain words, belonging to and as belonging to, a certain vocabulary, conforming to a certain grammar.

To perform a phatic, a phonetic act must be performed.

A.k.a. phatic expression, small talk

Return to top or post contents
Good afternoon. Are we there yet?
You’re welcome. How are you?
Are you all right? Have a nice day.
Hello. Good-bye.
May the Force be with you.
William: “Morning, Paul.”

Paul: “Oh, morning, William, how are you?”

William: “Fine, thanks. Have a good weekend.”

Paul: “Yes, thanks. Catch you later.”

William: “OK, see you.”

Phatic Act Rhetic Act
The cat is on the mat. He said that the cat was on the mat.
I shall be there. He said he would be there.
Get out. He told me to get out.
Is it in Oxford or Cambridge? He asked whether it was in Oxford or Cambridge.
There’s a spider on your lap.

This is the performance of a phonic act. Saying it and recognizing that it is English is a phatic act.

Credit to: Davis
Phonic Act Definition: The physical act of producing a certain sequence of vocal sounds (spoken language), or a set of written symbols (written language).

It’s also a methodology to teach reading and writing skills and/or teaching elementary reading based on the phonetic interpretation of normal spelling.

Return to top or post contents

 fpioqwu wiou
sadly Jill have blue are
row, row, row your boat
Communicative Illocutionary Act Definition: The speaker intends the hearer to recognize the point of their utterance through content, context, AND for the point to be recognized.

Return to top or post contents

 Its fulfillment consists in its recognition, i.e., communicative intention:

Credit to: Bach, chapt 3
Acknowledgment Speech Act Definition: Expresses their attitudes about objects and facts of the world toward the hearer or the intention that the utterance will meet some social expectations regarding the expression of feelings.

A.k.a. expressive

Return to top or post contents
accepting (acknowledging an acknowledgment)
apologizing condoling congratulating
greeting thanking welcoming
When the speaker is given a slice of cheese and likes it, then they will say “I like it” or “thank you”, etc.

Shows how the speaker feels about a situation.

I praise you for receiving the Pulitzer Prize.

I curse the day you were born.

I compliment you on your excellent choice of wine.

I honor you for winning a gold metal in the Olympics.

Credit to: Written
Commissive Speech Act Definition: Expresses the speaker’s intention to do something in the future and the belief that her utterance obliges her to do it.

Return to top or post contents
agreeing betting guaranteeing
inviting offering promising
swearing volunteering
I will come to your home tonight.

An utterance in which the speaker commits that they will come to the speaker’s home at night.

Karen will offer to give you a ride to the airport, if you need it.

I pledge to donate $500 to your favorite charity.

Credit to: Written
Constative Speech Act Definition: Words that describe a situation and is true or false.

Return to top or post contents
affirming alleging announcing
answering attributing claiming
classifying concurring confirming
conjecturing denying disagreeing
disclosing disputing identifying
informing insisting predicting
ranking reporting stating
stipulating
John denies that ever happened.

Are you disagreeing with me?!

I confirmed my flight a couple hours ago.
Declarative Speech Act Definition: Brings about the state of affairs to which the speaker refers.

A.k.a. declaration

Return to top or post contents
advising admonishing asking
baptizing begging bidding
blessing dismissing excommunicating
excusing firing forbidding
instructing ordering passing sentence
permitting requesting requiring
suggesting urging warning
I pass.

Said while playing bridge.

I bless the two of you.

Said by a priest during the marriage ceremony.

I abbreviate the Committee for Untested Trials and Experiments as CUTE.

I name this dog Butchie.

Credit to: Written
Directive Speech Act Definition: Aims to make someone else do something that the speaker desires.

Return to top or post contents
advising admonishing asking
begging dismissing excusing
forgiving instructing inviting
ordering permitting requesting
requiring suggesting
urging warning
Could you lend me a pen?
Lend me a pen!

The speaker requests a pen from someone else, they indirectly order the other person to lend him a pen.

I beg you not to go out during this hurricane.

I request that you be here tomorrow one-half hour earlier.

I permit you to camp out on my front lawn.

I recommend that you eat fewer foods with cholesterol.

I implore you to leave that no-good husband of yours.

I require my students to do homework assignments.

If said directly to students.

Credit to: Written
Representative Speech Act Definition: Commits a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition.

A.k.a. assertive

Return to top or post contents
asserting claiming describing
hypothesizing insisting stating
suggesting swearing
telling that something is the case
I’m a good guy.

Shows that the speaker wants the hearer believe that the speaker is a good guy.

I hereby testify that I sold that property on July 3, l989.

I predict that there will be a stock market crash later this year.

I acknowledge that I promised to take you to Las Vegas.

I require my students to do homework assignments.

If reported to someone else.

Credit to: Written
Conventional Illocutionary Act Definition: Acts performed with certain communicative intentions whose recognition by the hearer is necessary for the acts to be successful.

Return to top or post contents

 Success is a matter of convention, not intention; no communicative intention needs to be involved.

There are two classes (five per Austin*):

Credit to: Bach, chapter 6
Behabitive Definition: Expresses attitudes or social behavior towards someone.

Return to top or post contents
apologizing challenging
congratulating praising
I apologize for what I said.

Dean is in there praising her to the skies.

He’s challenging her for the leadership.
Commissive Definition: Commits yourself to doing something.

Return to top or post contents
pledging promising reassuring
The mayor vowed that he would follow through on that project.

I’ll pledge $300.
Effective Definition: When produced by the appropriate person in appropriate circumstances produces a change, a new fact in an institutional context.

Return to top or post contents

 The President of the United States states that he vetoes a piece of legislation.
Exercitive Definition: Exercises powers, rights, or influence.

Return to top or post contents
appointing ordering voting
The boss just appointed you to the board.

Are you voting this election?
Expositive Definition: Acts that clarify reasons, arguments, or communications and makes plain how we are using words

Return to top or post contents
affirming answering asking
denying describing stating
Every day, Elaine affirmed her self-worth.

No, I’m simply asking you.

She’s in there describing the perpetrator.
Verdictive Definition: Does not produce facts, but determines/judges facts, natural or institutional, with an official, binding effect in the institutional context.

Return to top or post contents
appraisal estimate reckoning
The jury brought in a verdict of guilt.

It does not create the fact of guilt, but settles the issue of guilt in a binding way.
Perlocutionary Definition: Utterances that have an effect on the listener, initiating a set of consequences such as affecting the listener’s thoughts, emotions, or even their physical actions, which can be unintentional.

Return to top or post contents

Credit to: Butler
Hate speech acts upon its listener.

Is there any salt?

Causes someone to pass the salt. Maybe.

Please find the black cat.

He persuaded me to shoot her.

He convinced me not to shoot her.

I’ve just made some cookies.

The listener may interpret this utterance as a request that they react by appreciating the smell or as an offer to try one.

I’m hungry.

The listener could be persuaded to make a sandwich for the speaker.
Constative Speech Act Definition: Depends on the facts and can only be judged in reference to them. It can be true or false.

Return to top or post contents

 Successful constative utterance:

  • Conveys a message
  • Message can be compared to the “real world”

Problem constative utterance:

  • False, unclear, or void of reference
Successful Problem
Jennifer’s hair is now a light ash blonde called “champagne”.

We can confirm that the TA’s hair is blonde, and if we dig the dye box out of the garbage, it will be labeled “champagne”.

 Jennifer? She’s the redhead who’s missing a tooth.”

Oops. She changed her hair color before we made this statement; the facts render it false.
Critics speculate that Friedrich Nietzsche’s madness resulted from brain damage characteristic of the advanced stages of syphilis.

We can’t do an autopsy on Fritz, but we can confirm, by reading, that his critics have so speculated. The statement is true, as far as it goes.

 “I have forgotten my umbrella,” when scrawled on the margins of a dead philosopher’s notes.

It’s not clear what that is, or why there is an objection to it.
Jennifer’s Siamese cat Tai is remarkably handsome.

If clear criteria for handsomeness has been established, and we confirm that Tai meets them.

 The king of France is bald.

The referent — the king of France — doesn’t exist.
“Twas brillig, and the slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe.”

It’s grammatically clear, but there’s no such thing as a slithy tove.
Performative Verbs Definition: Explicit verbs that incite, inspire, or denote action carried out by speakers.

Return to top or post contents

 Acts upon the world by doing something, not saying something. It is not necessarily true or false.

They are used in first person singular, simple present, indicative, or active.

It can be:
Examples include:
agree
bet
declare
insist		 name
order
predict
promise		 refuse
swear
warn
“I do take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife.”

Uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony.

“I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.”

Uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.

“I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”

As occurring in a will.

“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”
Successful Performative Rule: To be successful, a performative utterance must:

  1. Be appropriate for the participants and circumstances
  2. Invoke a recognized convention
    • May be more or less strictly defined
    • May only apply among certain groups of people
  3. The convention must be invoked in the right circumstances

A.k.a. felicitous performative, felicity condition, happy

Credit to: Austin; Thompson; Boggs
Essential Condition Definition: The speaker says what they say, and both speaker and hearer take the utterance to be performative.

Return to top or post contents

 “I promise to do my homework.”

Both of you think this is a promise.

If you quote yourself to a friend as saying “I told my teacher ‘I promise to do my homework’,” the quote — though identical in its locutionary properties — fails to promise because it has become part of a representative act reporting on the promise.

The involved parties intend to create a marriage bond.

Person pronouncing the words must believe what they are saying.
Preparatory Condition Definition: The speaker can do (doesn’t mean they are able to do but that they are allowed to do) what they say, that both speaker and hearer agree that it is situationally appropriate for them to perform the speech act.

Return to top or post contents

 “I promise to do my homework.”

You are actually a student in the teacher’s class and the homework has been assigned. If these conditions were not met, you’d have no homework and thus, no need to promise to do it.
Sincerity Condition Definition: The speaker means what they say, that both speaker and hearer take the utterance to be intentional, to accurately represent the wish of the speaker and the hearer’s understanding that the utterance expresses that wish.

Return to top or post contents

 The common expression “in good faith” illustrates the basic premise of the sincerity condition.

“I promise to do my homework.”

Both of you think that statement is a promise, a verbal contract suggesting that you want to do the homework and possess the requisite capacities to complete it.
Failed Performative Definition: States an action, but no one acts, reacts, or has no effect.

A.k.a. infelicitous, unhappy

Return to top or post contents
Successful Failed
“I now pronounce you man and wife” when spoken by a clergyman or ship’s captain, during a wedding ceremony, to two people of different sexes who are not related and have signed (or are about to sign) the appropriate paperwork. “I now pronounce you man and wife” spoken by a defrocked clergyman, or to two raccoons.
“I sentence you to life in prison with no chance of parole” spoken by a judge to a prisoner who has been found guilty by a judge or jury. “I sentence you to life in prison with no chance of parole” when the prisoner has smuggled a gun into the courtroom.
“I promise to come to your Halloween party” when spoken by someone who has been invited, to the host of a scheduled party. “I promise to come to your Halloween party” spoken to several hosts successively by a mendacious invitee.
“Doo-wop, doo-wop” when sung in the context of a ’50s love ballad. “Doo-wop, doo-wop” when belted out by a student in response to a question whose answer is clearly not “doo-wop, doo-wop.”
Rule: A performative may be successful in one context, and a failure in another.
If two gay men marry, their friends and family may recognize their vows as a happy and binding promise, but the state may not.
Rule: Saying something can also be viewed from three different perspectives:
Entail
Definition: The relationship between two sentences where the truth of one requires the truth of the other.
The president was assassinated.

The president is dead.

Implication
Definition: Stating a constative implies that you believe it.
The cat is on the mat.

Implies I believe that’s where the cat is.

Presupposition
Definition: An implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.
Hetty’s children are bald.

Presupposes that Hetty has children.

Jane no longer writes fiction.

Presupposes that Jane once wrote fiction.
Rule: Use the hereby test to determine if a sentence is a performative utterance is whether or not you can insert hereby before the verb. If the resulting sentence doesn’t make sense, it is not a performative.
I hereby name this ship Sojourner

I hereby named this ship Sojourner.

Conversational Implicature Includes:
Explicature Definition: Explicit communicated assumption that says everything we want to communicate and is often supplemented with contextual information.

Return to top or post contents

 No one goes there anymore.

Hardly anyone of any worth/taste goes to that location, any more.

There’s milk in the fridge.

There’s milk of sufficient quantity/quality for adding to coffee in the fridge.

Max: “Would you like to stay for supper?”
Amy: “No thanks, I’ve already eaten.”

Amy has already eaten supper this evening.

Alan: “Do you want to join us for supper?”
1. Lisa: “No, thanks. I’ve eaten.”
2. Lisa: “No, thanks. I’ve already eaten supper.”
3. Lisa: “No, thanks. I’ve already eaten tonight.”
4. Lisa: “No, thanks. I’ve already eaten supper tonight.”

All four answers communicate the same overall meaning but also the same explicatures and implicatures.

The second answer is the least explicit while the last answer is the most explicit.

Credit to: Carston; Nordstrom
Implicature Definition: An indirect illocutionary speech act with something the speaker suggests or implies with an utterance, even though it is not literally expressed and is characteristically far richer than what they directly express.

Return to top or post contents

 Implicatures can aid in communicating more efficiently than by explicitly saying everything we want to communicate.

It is a form of literary device which uses a word or phrase that departs from its literal meaning, such as irony, metaphors and intended meanings, in order to achieve a special effect or meaning, speech, or writing.

There are two types:

A.k.a. conversational implicature (yep, that’s besides the primary category)

Credit to: Implicature; Horn; Semantics
Dr. Gregory House: “How many friends do you have?”

Lucas Douglas: “Seventeen.”

Dr. Gregory House: “Seriously? Do you keep a list or something?”

Lucas Douglas: “No, I knew this conversation was really about you, so I gave you an answer so you could get back to your train of thought.”

– Hugh Laurie and Michael Weston. “Not Cancer.” House, M.D. 2008.

Husband: “How much longer will you be?”

Wife: “Mix yourself a drink.”

The assumption is that the husband and wife are going out, and the wife’s reply implies that it’ll be awhile.

Jim Halpert: “I don’t think I’ll be here in 10 years.”

Michael Scott: “That’s what I said. That’s what she said.”

Jim Halpert: “That’s what who said?”

Michael Scott: “I never know, I just say it. I say stuff like that, you know – to lighten the tension when things sort of get hard.”

Jim Halpert: “That’s what she said.”

– John Krasinski and Steve Carell. “Survivor Man.” The Office. 2007.

Alan: “Are you going to Paul’s party?”

Barb: “I have to work.”

The implication is that Barb is not going to Paul’s party.

Carla: “How’s the weather over there?”

Don: “The weather’s lovely.”

Don is using irony (he’s a truck driver trying to get over the continental divide during a blizzard), as the weather is terrible while Carla is a dispatcher in Denver, where it is sunny and dry.

You’re late to work, and your boss says, “What time do you call this ?!” in an angry voice.

By examining the context and your boss’s tone of voice, you can infer that your boss does not want to know the time but actually wants to know why you are late.

I could eat a horse.

In reading the context, we know that he doesn’t intend to eat a horse, but that he is very hungry.

Credit to: Nordquist; Stanford
Conventional Implicature Definition: Blurs the distinction between what is said and what is implied.

Return to top or post contents

 A conventional implicature is:

  • Part of the conventional meaning of words
  • A commitment and thus entails a necessary or inevitable part or consequence
  • A commitment made by the speaker of the utterance because of the words they choose
  • Logically and compositionally independent of what is said, i.e., a necessary, inevitable part, or consequence

Credit to: Potts
He was poor but honest.

Implies an unspecified contrast between poverty and honesty.

When speaking of another man, he says “he hasn’t been to prison yet”.

Up to the point of speaking, “he” hasn’t been to prison, yet.

It does imply that he is the sort of person likely to yield to the temptation provided by his occupation, based on common knowledge.

Even KEN knows it’s unethical.

Ken is the least likely to know that it’s unethical.

John is hungry but he won’t stay for supper.

We might expect that if John is hungry, he will stay for supper.

Manfred Krifka was in Moscow last spring too.

Some other given person than Manfred was in Moscow last spring.

Masha managed to start the car.

It required some effort to start the car, and Masha really did make an effort to start the car.

Bush failed to read the report.

Bush had an opportunity and tried, or should have tried, to read it.

Alfred has still not come.

Alfred was expected to have come by now.

Credit to: Partee
Cooperative Principle Definition: The unspoken agreement of cooperation between participants in a conversation in interpreting the speaker’s meaning, a.k.a. conversational implicature, in a series of speech acts, including greetings, inquiries, congratulations, comments, invitations, requests, accusations, etc.

Return to top or post contents

 There are four maxims to the Cooperative Principle:

  1. Maxim of Manner
  2. Maxim of Quality
  3. Maxim of Quantity
  4. Maxim of Relevance

Politeness and all of the other speech act formulae vary from culture to culture:

  • What is polite in one may be considered brusque or rude
  • In another, it may be considered too evasive, too formal, too obsequious
  • In American telephone conversations, people immediately begin to chat and visit
    • In French telephone conversations, people first apologize for disturbing the person they’re calling
    • In Indonesian, passive voice is considered more polite and deferential while the active voice may be grammatical, but sounds brusque and blunt, and not as deferential as the passive

Conversational implicatures have the following characteristics:

A.k.a. nonconventional implicature

Credit to: Pragmatics
John has three sons.

Conversationally implies that John has no more than three sons.

I ask you to lunch and you reply, “I have a one o’clock class I’m not prepared for.”

You have implied that you will not be coming to lunch, although you haven’t literally said so, because you need to prepare for your class.
Manner Maxim Definition: Contributions should be clearly understood, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity — in particular, they should be orderly and brief.

Return to top or post contents

 You talk with a neighbor about his new car. He has trouble staying on topic and starts talking about his favorite TV show. He doesn’t look at you when you talk and doesn’t laugh at your jokes. He keeps talking, even when you look at your watch and say, ‘Wow. It’s getting late.’ You finally leave, thinking about how hard it is to talk with him.”

In this scenario, the speaker is just talking about a new car and his favorite TV show. But the listener interprets the signs the speaker is using — not looking at the listener and not laughing at his jokes — as the speaker being unaware of the listener’s views (let alone his presence) and monopolizing his time.

Credit to: Nordquist
Quality Maxim Definition: Speakers’ contributions ought to be truthful and provide evidence for statements.

Return to top or post contents

 He: “Looks like it might rain!”

She: “Oh, yes, there’s going to be ten inches of rain, followed by snow, at least 20 inches, then hail; then a plague of locusts; and, the sun will shine from midnight until 2 a.m. Then there will be silence in heaven for about half an hour, and when the seventh seal is opened . . .”

He: “Where do you get your information?”

Quantity Maxim Definition: Speakers’ contributions should be as informative as required without overdoing it.

Return to top or post contents

 Parent: Did you finish your homework?

Child: I finished my algebra.

Parent: Well, get busy and finish your English, too!

The child’s answer implicates that the unmentioned subjects are not done.

Mary: “Hi, John, how are ya?”

John: “Oh, not so good, Mary. I just had a tooth out, then last week I had an epidural injection in my spine, followed by restorative surgery on my little toe; you should have seen it, it was horrible, and you wouldn’t believe what the surgeon charged, I just got the bill! Our health care system is outrageous, and the traffic on the way to work today! Unbelievable!”

Credit to: Schiffman
Relevance Maxim Definition: Contributions should relate to the purposes of the exchange without adding superfluous or irrelevant material.

Organize your utterances so that they are relevant at the time of the utterance.

Return to top or post contents

 Ford: “You should prepare yourself for the jump into hyperspace; it’s unpleasantly like being drunk.”

Arthur: “What’s so unpleasant about being drunk?”

Ford: “Just ask a glass of water.” – Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy.

Credit to: Ladusaw
Cancelable Implicature Definition: When the second sentence cancels out what the first sentence states.

Return to top or post contents

 John passed some of his exams. In fact, he passed all of them.

The first sentence says he passed “some” of them when, in truth, he passed them all. The second, truthful, sentence cancels out the first.

A: How many exams did John pass?
B: Some. In fact, he passed all of them.

Again, the answer’s first sentence is not truthful, which makes it cancelable.

Some of the students came to the party. In fact, I believe all of them came.

Some? When the second sentence says they all came? Nope, cancels out again.
Non-detachable Implicature Definition: It’s not possible to find another way of saying the same thing.

Return to top or post contents

 A: “Are you going to the party tonight?”
B1: “I don’t like parties.”
B2: “I’m not into parties.”

Both of B’s statements imply that B won’t go to the party.

War is war.

Five bucks is five bucks.
Calculable Implicature Definition: Capable of being worked out.

Return to top or post contents
therefore half all
one, two, three, etc. definite articles
All but one of the papers at the Reading Party were good.

Three of the papers at the Reading Party were good.

The papers by the German students at the Reading Party were good.

Half of the papers at the Reading Party were good.

One, three, the papers, and half each provide a calculation of the quality of the papers.

He is an Englishman, therefore he is brave.

He is an Englishman, and he is brave.

Therefore makes this a calculation.
Scalar Implicature Definition: Attributes an implicit meaning beyond the explicit or literal meaning of an utterance, and which suggests that the utterer had a reason for not using a more informative or stronger term on the same scale.

A.k.a. quality implicature

Return to top or post contents
Positive Quantifier Negative Quantifier Numerals
some
not all
many
most
all		 not all
few
none		 one
two
three . . .
Modals Sentential Connectives Gradable Adjectives
can
must		 and
or		 warm
hot
boiling
chilly
cold
freezing
Bill: “I have some of my money in cash.”

Suggests to a hearer that Bill does not have all his money in cash.

Some students can afford a new car.

Tells us that not all students can afford a new car.
Violations of the Cooperative Principles Rule: Indirect speech acts and shared knowledge that are mixed up or failure to observe them makes for uncooperative speech acts, confusion, and other problems.

Credit to: Schiffman

Return to top or post contents

 A: “Did Pamela pay you back the money?”

B: “Is the Pope Catholic?”

A: “She’s honest as the day is long!”

Politeness Conventions Definition: Conventionalized ways of communicating that a culture sees as polite and appropriate.

This differs from culture to culture and subculture to subculture.

It may involve various kinds of illocutionary acts, titles and address forms, special honorific suffixes, the passive voice, circumlocutions, or any other kinds of locutions.

Credit to: Schiffman
Positive Politeness Definition: Making utterances that are:

  • Conventionally polite
  • Flattering
  • Being very cooperative, etc.

Return to top or post contents

 Sure, I can do that.

I hope you have a happy birthday.

Please, after you.

Negative Politeness Definition: Avoiding saying things that are:

  • Inappropriate
  • Avoiding excessive intrusion, interruption, or inquisitiveness
  • Using appropriate body language
  • Avoiding particular gazes
  • Giving offense

No words are used, but politeness is maintained, although there are exceptions.

Return to top or post contents

 A: “I’m a vegetarian, and I don’t believe in killing any animals for any purpose!”
B looks at her feet to see if she’s wearing shoes made of leather.

In 1546, Catherine Parr, the sixth and final wife of Henry VIII, deflected the king’s anger by presenting her disagreements as opinions in order to distract Henry from his health issues.

Credit to: Nordquist

Keep quiet!

Shut up! is even ruder.

The polite version: “Would you mind keeping quiet?”

Credit to: Nordquist

Would you mind if I stepped ahead of you? I only have two things to purchase.
Structure of Conversation Definition: There is a covert structure of conversations, involving a number of different elements:

Credit to: Schiffman
Adjacency Pairs Definition: Certain kinds of turn-taking have specific follow-ups:

  • A question is typically followed by an answer
  • An invitation followed by an acceptance or an explanation of why it can’t be accepted
  • An assessment followed by agreement or disagreement
  • An apology followed by acknowledgement of the apology

Credit to: Schiffman

Return to top or post contents

 A: “Sorry about last night!”

B: “No problem; we were all pretty tired.”

But not:

B: “Where’d you get those shoes?”

Conversational Routine Definition: Uses fixed expressions, a.k.a. routines, that often have specific functions in conversation and give conversational discourse the quality of naturalness.

Return to top or post contents

 Routines include:

  • Help people establish themselves in certain positions
    • Routines for taking off and hanging up coats
    • Arrangements concerning where one is to sit or stand at a party or in a meeting
    • Offers of hospitality, etc.
  • Beginnings and endings of conversations
    • Leading into topics,
    • Moving from one topic to another
    • Breaking up conversations
  • Leaving a party
  • Dissolving a gathering

Credit to: Richards; Schiffman; Wardhaugh
This one’s on me.

I don’t believe a word of it.

I don’t get the point.

You look great today.

As I was saying, . . .

Nearly time. Got everything?

I’ll be making a move then.

I see what you mean.

Let me think about it.

Just looking, thanks.

I’ll be with you in a minute.

It doesn’t matter.

Opening Sequence Definition: People ordinarily begin in conventional ways: greetings, general questions or comments about the weather, sports, etc.

Credit to: Schiffman

Return to top or post contents
How are you? Hi. What’cha been up to?
Closing Sequence Definition: People conventionally prepare to end a conversation by summing up, using other locutions followed by several repetitions of farewells.

Credit to: Schiffman

Return to top or post contents
alright(y) goodbye okay bye okay
nice talkin’ to you take care
thanks for calling good to see you
thanks for dropping by see ya soon
Politeness Definition: Respectful communication structure that will differ from culture to culture and involving the maxims of the Cooperative Principle.

Return to top or post contents

 It may involve various kinds of illocutionary acts, titles and address forms, special honorific suffixes, the passive voice circumlocutions, or any other kinds of locutions.

See Politeness Conventions

Credit to: Schiffman
Rule: One or more maxims may be ignored with the intention of lightening bad news.
Ignoring the quantity maxim by being more verbose than usual in order to convey sympathy.
Rule: The structure can change depending on the speaker’s relationship to the listener — family, close friend, business acquaintance, stranger, etc.
How ya doin’?

I hope you are enjoying good health.

Rule: Situations vary, requiring different responses.
Urgent or desperate Watch out!
Task-oriented Pass me the hammer.

Hand me the potholder.

Not interested in “saving face” Clean up that mess.
“Face threatening” to the listener’s benefit Your left headlight is out.
Welcomes Come on in.
Offers Leave it, I’ll clean up later.

Credit to: Politeness Theory
Repairs Definition: When people don’t say what they intended to, need to edit a previous statement, misspeak themselves, or say something backwards, they then need to fix the utterance, i.e., they make repairs.

A.k.a. self-repair

Credit to: Schiffman

Return to top or post contents

 I am going to Paris on Tuesday.

I mean, on Thursday.

In fact, on Thursday.

I mean introduces a repair.

In fact introduces either a repair or a cancellation.

A: “Who has two children?”

B: “Maria. I mean, she has three.”

I mean introduces a repair.
Turn-taking and Pausing Definition: People usually don’t all talk at once; they signal that they are done by using certain phrases.

Credit to: Schiffman

Return to top or post contents
ya know? or somethin’ I dunno
isn’t it? whatever what do you think?
Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST)
Definition: Organizes text and characterizes its structure — the presence or absence of coherence — in terms of the relations that hold between parts of text using a hierarchy of phrases/sentences.

RST only describes the processes of creating or reading and understanding text with an emphasis on social context.

Judgement is required in determining RST.

RST basics include:

Key elements include:

The original reason for studying RST was developing a theory of text structure in computer programs, serving as an analytical tool, and as a tool for text generation.

Credit to: Mann
Text Span Definition: Generally a clause that consists of a:

  • Nucleus – the core of the span
  • Satellite – revolves around the nucleus, supporting, contradicting it, even though it is intended to increase the reader’s belief in the nuclear material

If a text span is defined in functional terms instead of orthographic terms, it can be interrupted when normally a text span is NOT interrupted by another text span.

A.k.a. span

Nucleus-satellite Relations Definition: Most common of structural patterning with one member of a pair of text spans more central (nucleus) and one more peripheral (the satellite).

Return to top or post contents

 Other nucleus text parts will have structural similarities with other nuclei.

* Satellite may come before the nucleus

A.k.a. asymmetry of relations

Credit to: Mann; Mann; Mann
Types of nucleus-satellite relations include:
Subject Matter Nucleus-satellite Relations
  • Circumstance
  • Condition * – nucleus is the factor(s) or prevailing situation(s) influencing the performance or outcome of a process
  • Elaboration – nucleus provides basic information while the satellite expands upon the action/information related
  • Evaluation – nucleus is the situation while the satellite is an evaluative comment about the situation
  • Interpretation – nucleus states a situation while the satellite interprets the situation
  • Non-volitional Cause – nucleus presents a situation while the satellite presents another situation which causes that one, but not by anyone’s deliberate action
  • Non-volitional Result – nucleus presents a situation while the satellite presents another situation which is caused by that one, but not by anyone’s deliberate action
  • Otherwise (anti-conditional) – nucleus states an action or situation whose occurrence results from the lack of occurrence of the satellite‘s conditioning situation, i.e., do this, then this, otherwise, do that
  • Preparation – nucleus is the text to be presented while the satellite prepares the reader to expect and interpret the text to be presented
  • Purpose – nucleus states an intended situation while the satellite states the intent behind the situation
  • Restatement – nucleus states a situation while the satellite re-expresses the situation. A restatement of Evidence and/or Elaboration
  • Solutionhood * – nucleus presents the problem and the satellite its solution. To is a signal word.
  • Volitional Cause – nucleus states a situation while the satellite states another situation which causes that one, by someone’s deliberate action
  • Volitional Result – nucleus states a situation while the satellite states another situation which is caused by that one, by someone’s deliberate action
  • Summary – a short restatement of the text
Presentational Nucleus-satellite Relations
  • Antithesis * – nucleus is the idea favored by the writer while the satellite is the idea(s) the writer dislikes
  • Background * – nucleus is what needs to be understood that includes satellite that explains it
  • Concession * – nucleus is the situation while the satellite acknowledges that justification may be needed. Although, but, even though are signal words.
  • Enablement – think of how-to text (the nucleus) that gives the reader the authority or means to perform an action (the satellite)
  • Evidence
  • Justify * – satellite increases the reader’s readiness to accept the writer’s credentials to present the nucleus
  • Motivation – nucleus states the reason(s) or request(s) while the satellite provides the information intended to increase the reader’s desire to perform the action
Multi-nuclear Relations
  • Contrast – nucleus presents one alternate while the satellite presents the other alternate
  • Joint – two distinct nuclei joined together. Both are unconstrained.
  • Sequence – the nucleus presents the first item while the satellite lists each of the next steps involved
Circumstance Relation Definition: The nucleus expresses the event(s) or idea(s) occurring in the interpretive context while the satellite is an interpretive context of situation or time.

Return to top or post contents

 Cleaning agents on the burnished surface of the Ectype coating actually remove build-up from the head, 2, while lubricating it at the same time.

“Cleaning agents … actually remove build-up” is the locus of effect of the nucleus and the circumstance relation while “while lubricating it at the same time”, the satellite, provides a framework within which to interpret the nucleus.
Evidence Relation Definition: Relates two text spans, one of which (the satellite) provides evidence for the claim put forth in the nucleus.

Return to top or post contents

 The program as published for calendar year 1980 really works.

“The program . . . really works” is the locus of effect of the nucleus and the evidence relation while “as published . . . year 1980” is the satellite.
Size Definition: RST works for all sizes, from clauses to groups of paragraphs, requiring:
Organization Definition: Functionally significant texts — elements of patterns in which texts are combined to create larger texts and whole texts.
Unity and Coherence Definition: Incorporates every part into a single connected analysis.
Unity and Coherence Arise from Imputed Function Definition: A chunk of text that contributes to the single purpose of the writer to achieve a single effect.

This is achieved through:

  • A familiar pattern in the subject matter:
    • A temporal sequence
    • Repeated reference to a character
  • Abstract semantic patterns, such as:
Relations Definition: The most frequent structural pattern, it identifies particular relationships that can hold between two non-overlapping text spans — that are part of “speaker meaning”, the way that people use language to inform or entertain or persuade.

Multiple relations can occur in any text.

There are two fields in a relations definition:

A.k.a. coherence relations

Constraints Definition: A field in which a set of constraints exist on:

  • The nucleus, where the reader might not believe the nucleus that would satisfy the writer
  • The satellite, where the reader believes the satellite or finds it credible, and
  • The combined nucleus and satellite, where the reader’s comprehension increases their belief of the nucleus
  • The effect
Effect Definition: The reader judges whether it is plausible that the writer wants the specified condition(s).

  • The reader’s belief of the nucleus is increased.
  • The locus of the effect is the nucleus.
Relational Composition Definition: Strongly dominant relational patterns link parts together to form larger parts.

Other assumptions include:

  • Structural patterns of constituent categories
  • Semantic structural patterns of subject matter, e.g., temporal or causal chains
Nature of Relations Definition: Text structuring relations are functional, reflecting:

  • The writer’s options of organization and presentation
  • The purpose of the writer
  • The assumptions about the reader
  • Certain propositional patterns in the subject matter

There is no single function, but a combination of:

  • Informing or message-passing
  • Presentational and social functions with little informative value
Number of Relations Definition: It’s most common that the set of relations used in a text is pulled from a small set of highly recurrent relations common to a culture.

It does allow for additional previously unused relations.

Schema Definition: Based on the relations, a schema defines patterns that allows a text span to be analyzed in terms of other spans.

For each relation, there is a corresponding schema.

Constraints that apply to a structural analysis of a text include:

  • Adjacency – text spans of each schema application is one text span
  • Completedness -one schema application that contains a set of text spans that constitute the entire text
  • Connectedness – Each text span within the entire text is either a minimal unit or a constituent of another schema application
  • Uniqueness – each schema application consists of a different set of text spans, and within a multi-relation schema, each relation applies to a different set of text spans

Credit to: Mann
Schema Application Definition: Defines the ways a schema can be represented by an actual example.

The structure of an entire text is defined in terms of composition of schema applications.

Three conventions determine possible applications of a schema:

  1. Optional Relations – in a multi-relation schema, all individual relations are optional but at least one of the relations must hold
  2. Repeated Relations – a relation that is part of a schema can be applied any number of times in the application of that schema
  3. Unordered Spans – the schemas do not constrain the order of nucleus or satellites in the text span in which the schema is applied
Three Kinds of Structure Definition: A theory of text organization that describes relations that hold between parts of text.

Three kinds of structure, e.g., building blocks, that can mix and match with abandon:

Structures that follow a:

Credit to: Pragmatics
Holistic Structure Definition: Incompressible, it applies to the complete system of language — how the parts of a whole relate to each other to form the whole.

Return to top or post contents

 The body of a letter uses what our culture expects:

  • A letterhead logo
  • The date
  • A greeting
  • The body of the letter – which is filled with relations
  • The closing
  • Any P.S.s
Relational Structure Definition: Conversational influence attempts that are often organized around requests, hints, and prompts.

A.k.a. relational discourse structure

Syntactic Structure Definition: A fancy way to say “the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence” that provides the sentence with meaning.

The foundation of a sentence is the subject-predicate.

Return to top or post contents

 The senators objected to the plans proposed by the generals.

The senators proposed the plans objected to by the generals.

Using the same words but rearranged, these sentences say exactly the opposite of each other.

He read the book new.
We fed some dogs hungry.
I saw the house white.

The grammatical mistakes of these sentences indicate that adjectives cannot follow a noun.

He read the new book.
We fed some hungry dogs.
I painted the house white.

Ahh, yes, it makes more sense that the adjective comes before the noun.

Credit to: Nordquist
Hierarchy Definition: The outline approach with text organized by primary ideas and drilling down to the specifics — similar to an outline for a research paper with its main points which lead to subheadings with information that supports your thesis statement.

Consider how articles are structured for newsletters, magazines, newspapers, and blogs.

Homogeneity of Hierarchy Definition: A set of patterns, a.k.a. RST schemas, using one set of structural patterns from the largest (letter body, magazine article body, etc.) down to a two-clause combination.

There is likely to be rank-scale or size-scale of sections and paragraphs with their own distinct functional descriptions and principles of relational composition.

Reference Management
Definition: The speaker considers what the listener knows and lays out the sentence so the listener will understand it.

Management splits into:

Credit to: Pragmatics
A stranger comes up to us on the street and says, out of nowhere, “what is the frequency?”

We are likely to assume that he is crazy, or perhaps mistaking us for someone else.

Roommate: “There’s a letter for you on the table.”

If it’s the same old letter that both of you know well has been there for several days, you may waste some time looking for another one.
Rule: Sentences can be constructed in different ways but have a similar meaning.
I need a nickel.

It’s me that needs a nickel.

What I need is a nickel.

A nickel is what I need.

Rule: Do not introduce familiar things as if they were new, as it can be insulting and/or confusing.
If your roommate says “there’s a letter for you on the table”, and it’s the same old letter that both of you know well has been there for several days, you may waste some time looking for another one.
Rule: Aspects of language can indicate whether a particular piece of information is “old” or “new”. This reduces the amount of detail needed in talking about it, and still make it obvious for listeners or readers.

“Old information” (usually a noun) occurs early in a sentence and may be referred to using a pronoun.

When John appeared at the party, he was introduced to Pearl.

She had arrived with her friend Julie.

Joan: [Sniffing] “One thing I’ve noticed is clogs are back.”

Mary: “Really?”

Joan: “Yeah. They’re starting to make a comeback. You see them in the stores more and more, and I said I didn’t think I’d ever see those again. [laughter]

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the “old”
  2. Blue indicates the “new”
Reference Definition: Words we use to identify things that are in some direct relationship to those things and clearly tied to the speaker’s goals/beliefs.

The speaker/writer uses linguistic forms to enable a listener/reader to identify something.

Credit to: Yule
Referring Expression Definition: Any expression used in an utterance to refer to something or someone.

Return to top or post contents

 The choice of expression depends on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows.

There are 4 categories of referring expressions:
Definite Noun Phrase A subsequent reference, anaphoric

the national park
my sister
her brother
the dog
Indefinite Noun Phrase Usually the initial reference.

a place
a woman
a student
any dog
Pronoun A subsequent reference, anaphoric

it
she
he
they
him
Proper Noun Denali National Park
Mary
Patrick
Fluffy

Credit to: شفاء الزهراء
Referent Definition: What a word or symbol stands for.

Return to top or post contents

 An actual chair is the referent of the word chair.

Possible referents include government, country, soccer team . . .

Co-text Definition: The linguistic material that accompanies the referring expression.

Return to top or post contents

 Brazil wins World Cup.

“Wins World Cup” limits the range of possible interpretations.
Context Definition: The physical environment and speech conventions that have an impact on how the referring expression is interpreted.

Return to top or post contents

 The heart attack can’t be moved.

In a hospital, “heart attack” refers to a patient who suffered one.

Your ten-thirty just canceled.

An office where people are scheduled for appointments or meetings.

A couple of rooms have complained about the heat.

People who work in a hotel understand that “rooms” are the people occupying the room.

The cheese sandwich is in the corner.

In a restaurant, the waitpersons refer to the eater by what they’ve ordered.
Attributive Use Definition: Who/whatever fits the description.

Also possible with definite noun phrases.

Return to top or post contents

 The murderer of Smith is insane.

Refers to the possibly unknown person who murdered Smith, whoever that person may be.

She wants to marry a man with lots of money.

No idea who the guy is, but he’ll have lots of money.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the attributive use
Referential Use Definition: One specific entity fits the description.

Return to top or post contents

 The killer escaped.

“The killer” is a specific person, even though no other description or name is used.
Antecedent Definition: An initial reference, usually the indefinite noun phrase, that is followed by the anaphora.

Return to top or post contents

 John arrived late because traffic held him up.

The pronoun “him” refers to and takes its meaning from “John”, so “John” is the antecedent of “him”.
Postcedent Definition: The anaphora is followed by what would normally be the antecedent . . . only it comes after. Just to, ya know, really ram that “post” thing home.

Return to top or post contents

 It bothered me that she did not call.

Two violinists were there, at the party.

Sam tries to work then, when it is raining.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the postcedent
  2. Blue indicates the anaphora

Credit to: Antecedent
Anaphor Definition: The second or subsequent expression after the antecedent.

The connection of the anaphor with the referent is not always direct.

A.k.a. anaphoric reference, anaphoric expression, aphor expression, pro-form

Credit to: Shandy

Return to top or post contents

 I was waiting for the bus, but he drove by without stopping.

The inference is that there is a bus in motion; that “he” is the driver; and, that there is a description of what “I” was doing.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the antecedent
  2. Blue indicates the anaphor
Anaphora Definition: A subsequent reference to an already introduced referent(s).

Credit to: Shandy

Return to top or post contents

 Peel and slice six potatoes. Put them in cold salted water.

“Them”, the subsequent reference, is the “six peeled and sliced potatoes”.

The bus came on time, but he didn’t stop.

The “bus” and “he” do not agree grammatically, but the bus does have a driver, and “he” refers to that bus driver.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the antecedent
  2. Blue indicates the anaphora
Verbal Anaphora Definition: A gap, an ellipsis in a phrase or clause, is presented and the listener/reader must identify the missing word(s) by referring back.

A.k.a. verb phrase anaphor, verb phrase ellipsis, zero anaphora

Return to top or post contents
do do it do so
do that do this
Cook for three minutes.

Eliminating those potatoes is an ellipsis, expecting the listener to infer that that ellipsis refers to those six sliced potatoes.

He did this in under an hour.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the ellipsis
Cataphora Definition: Reverses the antecedent-anaphora pattern, requiring the use of a postcedent.

It’s less common than anaphora.

Credit to: Shandy

Return to top or post contents

 I turned the corner and almost stepped on it! Can you believe there was a large snake in the middle of the path.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the antecedent
  2. Blue indicates the cataphor
Inference Definition: Any additional information used by the listener/reader to correctly connect/identify what is said to what must be meant.

Inferring connects prior knowledge to text-based information to create meaning beyond what is directly stated.

Credit to: Shandy
I enjoy listening to Mozart.

The listener/reader infers that “Mozart” is the composer of the music.

Have you seen that blue thing?

I don’t like that icky stuff.

Mister Nose-in-the-air should arrive any time.

Uses an expression that focuses on one feature.

Where’s my Shakespeare?

The listener infers that the speaker is looking for a book on or written by Shakespeare.

Return to top or post contents

C’mon, get it out of your system, bitch, whine, moan . . . which words are your pet peeves? Also, please note that I try to be as accurate as I can, but mistakes happen or I miss something. Email me if you find errors, so I can fix them . . . and we’ll all benefit!

Satisfy your curiosity about other Linguistics posts by exploring its homepage or more generally explore the index of self-editing posts. You may also want to explore Book Layout & Formatting Ideas, Formatting Tips, Grammar Explanations, the Properly Punctuated, Word Confusions, Writing Ideas and Resources, and Working Your Website.

Return to top or post contents

Resources for Theoretical Linguistics on Pragmatics

Some of these links may be affiliate links, and I will earn a small percentage, if you should buy it. It does not affect the price you pay.

شفاء الزهراء. “Reference: Pragmatics.” SlideShare.net. 8 Jun 2015. Web. 30 Mar 2021. <https://www.slideshare.net/syifazahro/reference-pragmatics>.

“Antecedent (grammar).” Wikipedia.org. 25 Mar 2021. Web. 30 Mar 2021. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antecedent_(grammar)#Postcedents>.

Austin, John L., Marina Sbisà, and J.O. Urmson, eds. How to Do Things with Words. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1975.

⸻, J.O. Urmson, and G.J. Warnock, eds. Philosophical Papers. Vol 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961.

⸻ ⸻, and Marina Sbisà, eds. “Lecture VIII.” 2nd ed. Harvard University Press, 1975, p 94-108. <https://sites.uni.edu/boedeker/lecture.pdf>.

Bach, Kent and Robert M. Harnish. Linguistic Communication and Speech Acts. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1979.

Bache, Carl and Niels Davidsen-Nielsen. Mastering English. Walter De Gruyter, 1998.

Boggs, Colleen Glenney. “Speech Acts: Constantive and performative.” TEDEd.com. n.d. Web. 14 March 2021. <https://ed.ted.com/lessons/speech-acts-constative-and-performative-colleen-glenney-boggs>.

Butler, Judith. “Excitable Speech: A Politics of the performative.” MonoSkop.org. n.d. Web. 15 Mar 2021. <https://monoskop.org/images/5/54/Butler_Judith_Excitable_Speech_A_Politics_of_the_Performative_1997.pdf>.

Carston, Robyn and Alison Hall. Hans-Jörg Schmid, ed. “Implicature and Explicature.” Cognitive Pragmatics. Walter de Gruyter, 2012.

Cassin, Barbara. Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon. Princeton, 2014.

Davis, Steven. Searle J.R., Kiefer F., Bierwisch M. eds. “Perlocutions.” Speech Act Theory and Pragmatics. Texts and Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy, vol 10. Springer, Dordrecht: 1980, p 37–55. DOI: <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-8964-1_2>.

Duignan, Brian. “Pragmatics.” Encyclopædia Britannica. n.d. Web. 6 Mar 2021. <https://www.britannica.com/science/pragmatics>.

Horn, Laurence R. The Handbook for Pragmatics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.

“Implicature.” Wikipedia.com. 26 Feb 2021. Web. 18 Mar 2021. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicature>.

Kádár, Dániel Z. “Politeness in Pragmatics.” 29 Mar 2017. Web. 31 Mar 021. <https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-218?mediaType=Article>. Oxford University Press. <https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.218>.

Klammer, Thomas P., Muriel R. Schulz, and Angela Della Volpe. Analyzing English Grammar. 4th ed. Pearson, 2004.

Ladusaw, William. “Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics).” Linguistic Society.org. n.d. Web. 13 Mar 2021. <https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/meaning-semantics-and-pragmatics>.

Mann, William C. and Maite Taboada. “Intro to RST Rhetorical Structure Theory.” Simon Fraser University. n.d. Web. 29 Mar 2021. <https://www.sfu.ca/rst/01intro/intro.html>.

⸻; and Sandra A. Thompson. “Rhetorical Structure Theory: Toward a functional theory of text organization.” University of Pennsylvania. n.d. Web. 28 Mar 2021. <https://www.cis.upenn.edu/~nenkova/Courses/cis700-2/rst.pdf>.

⸻, Christian M.I.M. Matthiessen, and Sandra A. Thompson. “Rhetorical Structure Theory and Text Analysis.” ResearchGate. Nov 1989. Web. 28 Mar 2021. <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235178249_Rhetorical_Structure_Theory_and_Text_Analysis>. Uploaded by Christian M.I.M. Matthiessen.

Nordquist, Richard. “Conversational Implicature Definition and Examples: It’s not what you say, but what you mean.” ThoughtCo.com. 4 Feb 2020. Web. 21 Mar 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/conversational-implicature-speech-acts-1689922>.

⸻, “English Language Sentence Structure: How meaning is derived from the syntax of a sentence.” 4 Nov 2019. Web. 30 Mar 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/sentence-structure-english-grammar-1691891>.

⸻, “Explicature (Speech Acts).” Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms. ThoughtCo. 19 Feb 2020. Web. 21 Mar 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/explicature-speech-acts-1690622>.

⸻, “Locutionary Act Definition in Speech-Act Theory: The act of making a meaningful utterance.” 18 July 2019. Web. 15 Mar 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/locutionary-act-speech-1691257>.

⸻, “Politeness Strategies in English Grammar.” Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms. ThoughtCo.com. 14 Jan 2020. Web. 31 Mar 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/politeness-strategies-conversation-1691516>.

⸻, “Pragmatics Gives Context to Language: Body language and tone of voice augment actual words.” ThoughtCo.com. 11 Aug 2019. Web. 13 Mar 2021. <https://www.thoughtco.com/pragmatics-language-1691654>. He makes an interesting point on how helpful this is in teaching pragmatics to autistic children.

Partee, Barbara H. “Formal Semantics, Lecture 8: Conventional Implicatures.” University of Massachusetts. 24 Apr 2009. Web. 21 Mar 2021. <https://people.umass.edu/partee/MGU_2009/materials/MGU098_2up.pdf>.

“Performative.” Glottopedia.org. 2 Mar 2018. Web. 19 Mar 2021. <http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Performative>.

“Politeness Theory.” Wikipedia.org. 9 Mar 2021. Web. 31 Mar 2021. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeness_theory#Politeness_strategies>.

Potts, Christopher. “Conventional Implicatures, a Distinguished Class of Meanings.” Stanford. 25 Nov 2005. Web. 21 Mar 2021. <https://web.stanford.edu/~cgpotts/papers/potts-interfaces.pdf>.

“Pragmatics.” Lecture 13. Linguistics 001. University of Pennsylvania. Fall 2007. Web. 6 Mar 2021. <https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2007/ling001/pragmatics.html>.

Richards, Jack. “Teaching Speaking #1 — Conversational Routines.” Pedagogy. World of Better Learning. Cambridge University Press. 1 Feb 2016. Web. 21 Mar 2021. <https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2016/02/01/teaching-speaking-1/>.

Schiffman, H. “Language Use: Functional Approaches to Syntax.” Handout for EDUC 537. Speech Acts and Conversation. Educational Linguistics. University of Pennsylvania. 27 Nov 1997. Web. 19 Mar 2021. <https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/edling/handouts/speechacts/spchax2.html>.

Searle, John. Speech Acts: An essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969.

“Semantics vs. Pragmatics.” Study Smarter. n.d. Web. 15 Mar 2023. <https://www.studysmarter.us/explanations/english/pragmatics/semantics-vs-pragmatics/>.

Shandy, Febri. “Pragmatic Reference and Inference.” SlideShare.net. 24 Nov 2013. Web. 30 Mar 2021. <https://www.slideshare.net/FebriShandy/presentation1-28571111>.

“Speech Acts and Events.” Focus and Content. Pragmatics. Ello.us. n.d. Web. 17 Mar 2021. <http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Pragmatics/PragmaticsSpeechActsandEvents>.

“Speech Acts Classifications.” Cultural Studies Now. 4 Jan 2018. Web. 15 Mar 2021. <http://culturalstudiesnow.blogspot.com/2018/01/speech-acts-classifications.html>.

“Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” Stanford University. n.d. Web. 20 Feb 2021. <https://plato.stanford.edu>.

Thomas, Jenny. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. 1st ed. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2015.

Thompson, Jennifer. “Performatives and Constatives Compared: A Summary.” English 456: C20 Criticism and Theory. University of California-Irvine. n.d. Web. 14 Mar 2021. <https://www.ajdrake.com/e456_spr_03/materials/guides/gd_performatives.htm>.

Vanderkeven, Daniel and Susumu Kubo. “Introduction.” Essays in Speech Act Theory. John Benjamins Publishing Company: 2001, pp 1–21.

Wardhaugh, Ronald. How Conversation Works. Wiley Computer Publishing, 1985, p 74.

“What is Linguistics?” UC Santa Cruz. 4 Aug 2017. Web. 6 Dec 2020. <https://linguistics.ucsc.edu/about/what-is-linguistics.html>.

“What is Linguistics and Why Study It?” College of Social & Behavioral Sciences. University of Arizona. n.d. Web. 6 Dec 2020. <https://linguistics.arizona.edu/content/what-linguistics-and-why-study-it-0>.

“What is Pragmatics?” All About Linguistics. n.d. Web. 6 Mar 2021. <https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branches-of-linguistics/pragmatics/what-is-pragmatics/>.

“Written Assignment — Illocutionary Classification.” Linguistics 105- Law and Language. University of California-San Diego. n.d. Web. 21 Mar 2021. <http://grammar.ucsd.edu/courses/lign105/illoc-ans.html>.

Yule, George. The Study of Language. 4th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Return to top or post contents

Pinterest Photo Credits:

A Conversation is Khalid Albaih‘s own work and is under the CC BY 2.0 license, via Flickr.

Kathy's signature
«
»