Grammar: Verbs

Posted December 21, 2014 by Kathy Davie in Author Resources, Grammar Explanations, Self-Editing, Writing

Revised as of
25 June 2023

Verbs are movement. Without them, we wouldn’t get anywhere, feel anything, taste anything, smell anything. There would be no desire, no hatred. Of course, all this movement could be passive, like lying in a hammock. It could also be active: scaling a cliff, running in front of a raging bull, cooking breakfast, making love, trolling for that elusive big fish!

Verbs come in so many different flavors, they could be the Baskin-Robbins of grammar. For the most part, it’s good to know what the various parts, tentacles, roots, etc., are of the various parts of grammar, if only so you will understand what an editor is saying about your manuscript.

Grammar Explanations is . . .

. . . an evolving list of the structural rules and principles that determines where words are placed in phrases or sentences as well as how the language is spoken. Sometimes I run across an example that helps explain better or another “also known as”. Heck, there’s always a better way to explain it, so if it makes quicker and/or better sense, I would appreciate suggestions and comments from anyone on an area of grammar with which you struggle or on which you can contribute more understanding.

If you found this post on “Verbs” interesting, consider subscribing to KD Did It, if you’d like to track this post for future updates.

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Verb
Definition: Words that show action or a state of being.

Base Form:
Definition: The base form of a verb, in its simplest form, uses first-, second-, or third-person singular and the plural present tenses. It has no prefix, suffix, or past tense ending. The base form can function as the infinitive (with or without the to) or the imperative or subjunctive moods. A good tip-off is that it’s the form you’ll see in a dictionary entry.


POST CONTENTS:
By CategoryAlphabetical

Three Verb Groups:

  1. Normal Verbs
  2. Non-Continuous Verbs
  3. Mixed Verbs

Verb Forms

Inflection
Cases

Verb Properties

Verb Aspect:

Verb Types:

Verbal

Verb Phrases (VP)

Verb Agreement

Accomplishment
Achievement
Action
Active Voice
Activity
Agreement, Verb
Ambitransitive
Aspect
Auxiliary
Being
Cases
Case, Dative
Case, Genitive
Case, Nominative
Case, Objective
Catenative Linking
Causative
Conditional Mood
Compound
Continuous Future Perfect Tense (I will have been going)
Continuous Future Tense (I will be going)
Continuous Past Perfect Tense (I had been going)
Continuous Past Tense (I was going)
Continuous Present Perfect Tense (I have been going)
Continuous Present Tense (I am going)
Dative Case
Defective Verb
Ditransitive
Dynamic
Ergative Transitive
Factitive Transitive
Finite
Forms
Future Continuous Tense (I will be going)
Future Perfect Continuous Tense (I will have been going)
Future Perfect Progressive Tense (I will have been going)
Future Perfect Tense (I will have gone)
Future Progressive Tense (I will be going)
Future Simple Tense (I will go)

Genitive Case
Gerund
Helping
Historic Past Tense
Imperative Mood
Imperfect Past Tense,
Imperfect Tense
Imperfective Tense
Indicative Mood
Infinitive
Principal Auxiliary Verb
Inflected Auxiliary Verb Phrase
Inflection
Irregular
Inseparable
Intransitive
Intransitive Phrase
Iterative
Lexical / Main Verbs
Secondary Verb
Conjunctive Participle
Linking (An auxiliary verb)
Linking, Catenative
Literary Present Tense
Main Verbs
Mixed Verbs
Modal (An auxiliary verb)
Modal Auxiliary Verb Phrase
Mood
Mood, Conditional
Mood, Imperative
Mood, Indicative
Mood, Optative
Mood, Potential
Mood, Subjunctive
Verbification
Vector
Nominative Case
Non-Continuous
Nonfinite
Normal
Number
Objective Case
Participle
Passive Voice
Past Continuous Tense (I was going)
Past Historic Tense
Past Imperfect Tense
Past Perfect Continuous Tense (I had been going)
Past Perfect Progressive Tense (I had been going)
Past Perfect Tense (I had gone)
Past Progressive Tense (I was going)
Past Simple Tense (I went)

Perfect Aspect
Perfect Future Tense (I will have gone)
Perfect Past Tense (I had gone)
Perfect Present Tense (I have gone)
Perfect Progressive Aspect
Performative
Person
Phrasal
Phrase, Inflected Auxiliary

Phrase, Intransitive
Phrase, Modal Auxiliary
Phrases, Verb (VP)

Phrase Head, Verb
Preferit Tense
Preferite Tense
Present Continuous Tense (I am going)
Present Literary Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense (I have been going)
Present Perfect Progressive Tense (I have been going)
Present Perfect Tense (I have gone)
Present Progressive Tense (I am going)
Progressive Aspect
Prepositional
Progressive Future Perfect Tense (I will have been going)
Progressive Future Tense (I will be going)
Progressive Past Perfect Tense (I had been going)
Progressive Past Tense (I was going)
Progressive Present Perfect Tense (I have been going)
Progressive Present Tense (I am going)
Properties
Regular Verb
Reporting
Separable
Simple Aspect
Simple Future Tense (I will go)
Simple Past Tense (I went)
Simple Present Tense (I go)
Stative
Subjunctive (also classified as a mood verb; you’ll find more detail in “mood”)
Subjunctive Mood (it is also a verb type)
Tenses
(indicates the timing of the event or action. For a quick comparison, use the chart)
Tense, Future Continuous (I will be going)
Tense, Future Perfect (I will have gone)
Tense, Future Perfect Continuous (I will have been going)
Tense, Future Perfect Progressive (I will have been going)
Tense, Future Progressive (I will be going)
Tense, Historic Past
Tense, Imperfect
Tense, Imperfect Past
Tense, Imperfective
Tense, Literary Present
Tense, Past Continuous (I was going)
Tense, Past Perfect (I had gone)
Tense, Past Perfect Continuous (I had been going)
Tense, Past Perfect Progressive (I had been going)
Tense, Past Progressive (I was going)
Tense, Preferite
Tense, Preferit
Tense, Present Continuous (I am going)
Tense, Present Perfect (I have gone)
Tense, Present Perfect Continuous Tense (I have been going)
Tense, Present Perfect Progressive (I have been going)
Tense, Present Progressive (I am going)
Tense, Simple Future (I will go)
Tense, Simple Past Tense (I went)
Tense, Simple Present (I go)
Transitive
Types of Verbs

Vector
Verb Agreement
Verb Phrases (VP)
Verb Phrase Head
Verbal
Verbals as Object of Preposition
Verbals as Object Verb
Verbals as Subject Complement
Verbals as Subject Verb
Verbification
Voice

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Three Verb Groups
Normal Verbs Definition: Physical actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all tenses.

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to drink
to run
to slide
to walk
+++++
Non-Continuous Verbs Definition: These verbs are usually things you cannot see somebody doing — they are about state, not action — and are rarely used in continuous tenses, as they cannot express the continuous or progressive aspect.

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Abstract Verbs Emotion Verbs Possession Verbs
to be
to care
to contain
to cost
to exist
to need
to owe
to seem
to want
to dislike
to envy
to fear
to hate
to like
to love
to mind
to belong
to own
to possess
Mixed Verbs Definition: Verbs with more than one meaning, with each meaning a unique verb. Some meanings behave like non-continuous verbs, while other meanings behave like normal verbs.

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to appear
to feel
to have
to hear
to look
to miss
to see
to smell
to taste
to think
to weigh
Examples:
Non-Continuous Meaning Normal Meaning
Donna appears confused.

Donna seems confused.

My favorite singer is appearing at the jazz club tonight.

My favorite singer is giving a performance at the jazz club tonight.

I have a dollar now.

I possess a dollar.

I am having fun now.

I am experiencing fun now.

She hears the music.

She hears the music with her ears.

She is hearing voices.

She hears something others cannot hear. She is hearing voices in her mind.

Nancy looks tired.

She seems tired.

Farah is looking at the pictures.

She is looking with her eyes.

John misses Sally.

He is sad because she is not there.

Debbie is missing her favorite TV program.

She is not there to see her favorite program.

I see her.

I see her with my eyes.

I am seeing the doctor.

I am visiting or consulting with a doctor.

The coffee smells good.

The coffee has a good smell.

I am smelling the flowers.

I am sniffing the flowers to see what their smell is like.

The coffee tastes good.

The coffee has a good taste.

I am tasting the cake.

I am trying the cake to see what it tastes like.

He thinks the test is easy.

He considers the test to be easy.

She is thinking about the question.

She is pondering the question, going over it in her mind.

The table weighs a lot.

The table is heavy.

She is weighing herself.

She is determining her weight.

Joe is American.

Joe is an American citizen.

Joe is being very American.

Joe is behaving like a stereotypical American.

The massage feels great.

The massage has a pleasing feeling.

I am not feeling well today.

I am a little sick.

Verb Form
Main Verb Definition: A verb that has meaning on its own. It can be the only verb in a sentence or used with one or more helping verbs and are used to make verb tenses in three to eight different ways (see the table below).

Lexical, or main, verbs can be broken down into regular and irregular verbs, linking verbs, action, i.e., dynamic verbs, and stative verbs.

It is used in a finite clause.

A.k.a. lexical verb, main verb, polar verb, primary verb

Base
V1
Verb 1
3rd Person Singular
Present Simple
Past Simple
V2
Verb 2
Past Participle
V3
Verb 3
Present Participle # of Forms
Regular Verb work works worked working 4
Irregular Verb cut cuts cut cut cutting 3
make makes made making 4
sing sings sang sung singing 5
have has had having 4
do does did done doing 5
eat eats ate eaten eating 5
Base Present Simple
(3 forms)
Past Simple
(2 forms)
Past Participle Present Participle # of Forms
be am
are
is
was
were
been being 8
The headword for any given verb entry in a dictionary is always in the base form (Main).

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Secondary Verb Definition: A verb that expresses the meaning of the verb as an activity.

Used with past tense involving time and the subjunctive optative mood.

Its indicative tenses include imperfect, past perfect, and perfect aspect.

Nonfinite clauses include a secondary verb, but cannot be used in an independent clause.

There are three forms for a secondary verb:

  1. Plain Form or Infinitival
  2. Gerund-Participle Form
  3. Past Participle Form

A.k.a. reduced verb

Credit to: Personal

Plain Form or Infinitival
He can walk. Plain form
The dog makes us walk faster. Plain form, bare infinitive
He wants to walk. Infinitive with to
Gerund-Participle Form
She is walking in the rain. Auxiliary complement, progressive
She likes walking in the rain. Verb complement
People walking their dogs seem happy. Noun complement–modifier
They rested after walking for two hours. Preposition complement
Past Participle Form
The dog has tired its owners. Auxiliary complement, present perfect
The dog was tired by walking so much. Auxiliary complement, passive
The tired walkers rested their feet. Past participle modifier
The people tired of walking took a taxi home. Past participle modifier

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Conjunctive Participle Verb Definition: A verb form which describes an action that happens before the action expressed by the main verb of the sentence.

A.k.a. absolutive

He eats his breakfast and then goes to work.

Having heard me, he spoke.

We will leave after seeing the entire film.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the main verb
  2. Blue indicates the the lesser verb action

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Verb Tenses
Definition: Describes action taking place today, in the past, or in the future. There are indicative, subjunctive, and imperative verbs.

Continuous verbs, a.k.a., progressive verbs, combine different verbs to create a conditional clause reflecting real and unreal situations as well as reflecting situations in past, present, and future [tenses].

First person singular I
Second person singular you, ye, thou
Third person masculine singular he
Third person inanimate singular it
Third-person gender neutral singular one
Third person feminine singular she
First person plural we
Second person plural you, ye
Third person plural (and sometimes singular) they
Present
Simple Present Definition: Indicative: What’s happening at this moment whether it’s an action, an event, or condition that is occurring in the present, at the moment of speaking or writing.

Use this when the precise beginning or ending of a present action, event, or condition is unknown or is unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.

A.k.a. present, singular present

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I talk
you talk
s/he/it talks
we talk
they talk
Examples
He talks about you all the time.

She runs four miles every day.

I see him now!

They go out to dinner with the Petersons every Friday.

Jenni takes the test today.

Harry works in his garage on Sunday afternoons.

Present Perfect Definition: A two-word past tense that combines a past participlehas or have — and describes an action which began in the past but which continues into the present or its effect still continues.

Can be indicative or subjunctive.

Its aspect is present perfect.

A.k.a. conversational past, imperfect past, perfect

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I have talked
you have talked
s/he/it has talked
we have talked
they have talked
Examples
I have listened to you for the past two hours; now it’s my turn to talk.

It has rained for a week.

They have been married for fifty years.

Mark and Helen have spent every Christmas with their children.

Present Continuous / Progressive Definition: An indicative verb, it emphasizes the continuing or progressive nature of an incomplete act, event, or condition. It generally uses dynamic or normal verbs.

The progressive is also considered a verb aspect.

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  1. Express the idea that something is happening now or not happening now, at this very moment (now can mean this second, today, this month, this year, this century ++)
  2. Express the idea of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second
  3. Indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future, especially with verbs that convey the idea of a plan or movement from one place or condition to another
  4. The use of always or constantly to express the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. The meaning is like simple present, but with negative emotion
    • Use always or constantly between be and verb+ing

Form:
am / is / are + -ing (present participle)

A.k.a. continuous tense, present progressive

Credit to: McCarthy

I am talking
you are talking
s/he/it is talking
we are talking
they are talking
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the present tense to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
  4. Purple indicates the negative emotion

We are hiking Tamalpais this summer.

She is reading The Hobbit this week.

I am being so happy about my birthday today.

We are going to the movies this afternoon.

Jamie is acting up again these days.

She is always coming to the office late.

He is constantly talking.

Now of Happening / Not Happening
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the present tense to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

You are learning English now.

You are not swimming now.

Are you sleeping?

I am not standing.

Is he sitting or standing?

They are reading their books.

They are not watching television.

Why aren’t you doing your homework?

Now of Longer Actions in Progress
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the present tense to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

I am not studying to become a dentist.

I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.

I am not reading any books right now.

Are you working on any special projects at work?

Aren’t you teaching at the university now?

Near Future
I am meeting some friends after work.

I am not going to the party tonight.

Is he visiting his parents next weekend?

Isn’t he coming with us tonight?

Repetition and Irritation with Always
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the present tense to be
  2. Blue indicates the present participle
  3. Pale green indicates the always, because, or constantly

She is always coming to class late.

He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.

I don’t like them because they are always complaining.

Present Perfect Continuous / Progressive Definition: An indicative verb that generally uses dynamic verbs.

  1. Describes an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past and continues or progresses into the present AND it stresses the on-going nature of that incomplete action, condition, or event
  2. Frequently used to describe an event of the recent past and is often accompanied by just
  3. Lately or recently are used without a duration to emphasize a more general meaning

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Form:
have/has + been + -ing (present participle)

The perfect progressive is also considered a verb aspect.

A.k.a. present perfect continuous

I have been talking
you have been talking
s/he/it has been talking
we have been talking
they have been talking
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the present perfect verb
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

I have been working in the garden all morning.

George has been painting that house for as long as I can remember.

I have just been finishing up.

You have been waiting here for two hours.

Have you been waiting here for two hours?

You have not been waiting here for two hours.

Duration from the Past Until Now
They have been talking for the last hour.

She has been working at that company for three years.

What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?

James has been teaching at the university since June.

We have been waiting here for over two hours!

Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?

Recently, Lately
Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

She has been watching too much television lately.

Have you been exercising lately?

Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

Lisa has not been practicing her English.

What have you been doing?

Literary Present Definition: Uses the present tense when:

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  • Reporting how other writers have interpreted the work you are discussing
  • Writing about literature
  • Referring to the events, thoughts, or actions in a story as if those events are happening now
  • The author of the work is communicating to the reader at the present time

Exceptions include:

  • Using a direct quote
  • Writing about actual events that happened in the past
“In her essay, ‘In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens’, Alice Walker discusses the history of African American women and describes how ‘they dreamed dreams no one knew — not even themselves, in any coherent fashion — and saw visions no one could understand’ as a result of the silence inflicted upon them by lack of education and prejudice (232)” (Walker).
Past
Simple Past Definition: Describes an action, an event, or condition that happened in the past, some time before the moment of speaking or writing.

Can be indicative or imperfect subjunctive.

A.k.a. narrative past, past, past simple, secondary indicative, sometimes confused with the preterit

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I talked
you talked
s/he/it talked
we talked
they talked
Examples:
Jan ran over to the goalposts.

Teddy rode his horse to the finish.

They drove to Washington state from Wisconsin in a day-and-a-half.

We watched the movie for ten minutes before we left in disgust.

Preterite Definition: Very similar to simple past, it describes someone who is reporting or referring to a single completed action in the past.

It contrasts with imperfect, which refers to a continuing or repeated event or state.

A.k.a. preterit

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the preterit

I met Jane last week.

He refused to meet with me.

She told him that Mary had blue eyes and long blonde hair.

I succeeded in finishing my book!

Imperfect,

(IPFV, IMPV)

Definition: Describes a reference to a past time (past tense) + a reference to a continuing or repeated event or state (imperfective aspect) with an emphasis on aspect as opposed to tense (Chalker, 199).

YearlyGlot.com had the best definition: Imperfect refers back (the past part) to a time when you were doing something, that it was ongoing, incomplete, at that time (the imperfect part).

It contrasts with preterit, which refers to a single completed event in the past.

Because imperfect is a combination of past tense with a specific progressive aspect, it refers more commonly to past progressive (was doing or were doing).

A.k.a. imperfective, past imperfective

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I was talking
you were talking
s/he/it was talking
we were talking
they were talking
Examples:
Mary was driving when she hit the raccoon.

We were visiting family this past Christmas.

That pig was eating all the chocolate when we got in.

Historic Past Definition: When the present tense is used instead of the past in vivid narrative to give a sense of immediacy.

Two conventions exist:

A.k.a. dramatic present, historic present, historical present, narrative present

Credit to: Haitt; Historic Present

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People and Events From the Past
Rule: Use past tense because it happened in the past
Victor Hugo was born in Besançon in 1802.

Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492.

The Second World War ended in 1945.

Credit to: Kruger

Documents and Records From the Past
Rule: Use present tense because you may be reading documents or records which were written days, years, centuries ago, but you are reading them today.
The death certificate we found states that John James died in 1933.

The federal census from 1870 indicates there were two adults and five children living in the household.

On May 10, 1889, the boat log lists a Françoise Melieu entering Canada from Cannes.

Exceptions to documents or records in present tense include jokes, titles, informal speech:
So I says to the guy . . .

So a priest, a rabbi, and an imam walk into a bar . . .

The Empire Strikes Back

Past Continuous / Progressive Definition: An indicative verb, it describes actions ongoing in the past, which often take place within a specific time frame and no immediate or obvious connection to the present using dynamic verbs. The actions took place well before the time of speaking while something else was happening.

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  1. Indicates that a longer action in the past was interrupted, whether it was a real interruption or an interruption in time
  2. Uses a specific time as an interruption
  3. Expresses the idea of parallel actions that are both happening at the same time in the same sentence
  4. Uses a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past
  5. Uses always or constantly to express the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past or to poke fun at or criticize an action that is sporadic but habitual in nature. The meaning is similar to the expression used to but with negative emotion.
    • Place always or constantly between be and verb + ing

The progressive is also considered a verb aspect.

Form:
was / were + -ing (present participle)

A.k.a. past continuous

I was talking
you were talking
s/he/it was talking
we were talking
they were talking
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense of to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

I was being held prisoner while injured.

We were going to the movies at eight yesterday.

She was writing a letter for two hours.

You were saying something about a package coming yesterday?

Matilda was always climbing trees when we were little.

Interrupted Action in the Past
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense of to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

I was watching TV when she called.

When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

What were you doing when the earthquake started?

I was listening to my iPod, so I didn’t hear the fire alarm.

You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.

While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.

Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.

While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.

What were you doing when you broke your leg?

I was snowboarding.

Specific Time as an Interruption
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense of to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

Last night at 6 pm, I was eating dinner.

At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.

Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

Parallel Actions
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense of to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

I was studying while he was making dinner.

While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.

Were you listening while he was talking?

I wasn’t paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.

What were you doing while you were waiting?

Thomas wasn’t working, and I wasn’t working either.

They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

Atmosphere
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense of to be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.

Repetition and Irritation with Always
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the past tense of to be
  2. Blue indicates the present participle
  3. Pale Green indicates the always, because, or constantly

She was always coming to class late.

He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.

I didn’t like them because they were always complaining.

Past Perfect Definition: Describes something started in the past and continued up until another time or action in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first — the tense makes it clear which one happened first.

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Durations such as for five minutes and for two weeks can be used and stops before something else in the past.

Used in sentences expressing condition and can be indicative or subjunctive.

Form: had + past participle of the main verb

Think of the perfect as completed, finished, perfected.

A.k.a. perfective, pluperfect

I had talked
you had talked
s/he/it had talked
we had talked
they had talked
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the past perfect
  2. Blue indicates the conditional

She had given up on George calling.

She hadn’t asked if he would marry her.

I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.

I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.

John had gone out when I arrived in the office.

I had saved my document before the computer crashed.

When they arrived, we had already started cooking.

Past Perfect + Just Rule: Just is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now.

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The train had just left when I arrived at the station.

She had just left the room when the police arrived.

I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.

Past Perfect Continuous / Progressive Definition: Shows a continuous action that started and stopped in the past:

  1. Something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past
    • Typical durations use for five minutes and for two weeks
  2. Says what had been happening before something else happened, showing cause-and-effect
  3. Reporting things said in the past

The perfect progressive is also considered a verb aspect.

Form:
had + been + -ing (present participle)

A.k.a. past perfect progressive

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I had been talking
you had been talking
s/he/it had been talking
we had been talking
they had been talking
Situation in Progress
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense modal + been verbs
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

I hadn’t been feeling well, so I sent him away.

Simon had not been expecting a positive answer when he got a job.

The hikers hadn’t been walking long before they got lost.

I had been working in the garden all morning.

George had been painting his house for weeks, but he finally gave up.

You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Duration Stops in the Past
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense modal + been verbs
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.

Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.

James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.

How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara?

I had not been studying Turkish very long.

Cause and Effect
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense modal + been verbs
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
  4. Pale Green indicates the because

It had been snowing for a while before we left.

We had been playing tennis for only a few minutes when it started raining.

Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

Reporting Things Said in the Past
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the past tense modal + been verbs
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

She said she had been trying to call me all day.

They said they had been shopping.

I told you I had been looking for some new clothes.

Future
CAUTION: Future tenses cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as:

after
as soon as
before
by the time
if
unless
when
while
Simple Future Definition: Describes what will happen; actions that will take place after the act of speaking or writing.

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I will talk
you will talk
s/he/it will talk
we will talk
they will talk
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Green indicates will + verb

Jake will run in the next race.

She will take the test in a couple of hours.

Will you wake me up when the baby cries?

Suggest a Voluntary Action
  • Something one offers to do for someone else
  • Respond to someone else’s complaint or request for help
  • When requesting someone to help or volunteer to do something

Credit to: Simple

I will send you the check when the work is done.

Karen will translate the text from the German to prepare it for an English publication.

Mom, Jamie won’t help me put the leaves in the dining table.

Your father will not take sides on this issue.

Will you bake the cupcakes for Cheyenne’s party tomorrow?

Express a Promise.
I will invite you when I know the date.

I will make sure you get that promotion.

Yes, yes, yes, I promise I won’t tell him anything.

Promise me you‘ll be careful.

I will tell everyone what you did.

Future Continuous / Progressive Definition: An indicative verb generally using dynamic verbs, it describes continuing and incomplete actions that will be happening or going on at some point in the future in the future.

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  1. This can be a real interruption
  2. Specific time interrupts the action
  3. Expresses the idea of parallel actions will be happening at the same time in the same sentence
  4. Expresses a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a specific point in the future

The progressive is also considered a verb aspect.

Two Forms:

  1. will be + (present participle)
  2. to be (am/is/are) + going to be + (present participle)

These forms are usually interchangeable.

CAUTION: Use present continuous instead of future continuous when a time clause is used in the sentence.

A.k.a. future progressive

I will be talking
you will be talking
s/he/it will be talking
we will be talking
they will be talking
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the future
  2. Green indicates the modal verb + be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

John will be taking part in the Ironman Triathalon next year.

The decision for artist-of-the-year suggests that Karen will be winning the award by September 15.

Interrupted Action in the Future
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the interrupted action
  2. Green indicates the modal verb + be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

Note that arrives is simple present and not simple future.
Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the specific time
  2. Green indicates the modal verb + be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

Tonight at 6 pm, I am going to be eating dinner.

I will be in the process of eating dinner.


At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

We will be in the process of driving through the desert.

Parallel Actions in the Future
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the future time
  2. Green indicates the modal verb + be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
  4. Purple indicates the time clause

I am going to be studying, and he is going to be making dinner tonight.

Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.

Atmosphere in the Future
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the future time
  2. Green indicates the modal verb + be
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
  4. Purple indicates the time clause
  5. Pale green indicates the always

When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing.

While I am finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner.

Future Perfect Definition: Describes action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future. May also refer to an action that will be completed sometime in the future before another action takes place.

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I will have talked
you will have talked
s/he/it will have talked
we will have talked
they will have talked
Examples
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the completion time in the future
  2. Green indicates the will have
  3. Blue indicates the past participle

I will have talked to my source by then.

Will she have finished painting the room by then?

Henry will have proposed to Mary by tomorrow afternoon.

Won’t Mac have closed the case this afternoon?

Future Perfect Continuous / Progressive Definition: An indicative verb, it describes a continuing or progressing action that will be completed at some specified time in the future — a duration that stops — at or before a reference point in the future.

It generally uses dynamic verbs, although this tense is rarely used.

It must include for χχ amount of time, as in for ten minutes, for eight days, for two centuries, since last Friday, etc.

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CAUTION: It cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions. Use present perfect continuous instead.

The perfect progressive is also considered a verb aspect.

Form (usually interchangeable):

  1. Something that will continue up until a particular event or time in the future
  2. Shows cause and effect before another action in the future

A.k.a. future perfect progressive

I will have been
you will have been
s/he/it will have been
we will have been
they will have been
I am going to have been
you are going to have been
s/he/it is going to have been
we are going to have been
they are going to have been
Two Different Forms
Until a Particular Event or Time Shows Cause and Effect Before Another Action
I will have been talking since noon.

You will have been taking out the garbage for the past two years.

He will have been sorting out the recyclables for almost an hour.

We will have been flying a kite in competitions for three years.

They will have been traveling for days.

Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the will have been
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
I am going to have been reading since this morning.

You are going to have been flying for two hours.

She is going to have been driving for six hours.

We are going to have been scuba diving for the past five years.

They are going to have been working in the yard since 2 p.m..

Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the am/is/are + going to have been + present participle
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
Duration Before Something in the Future
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the will have been OR the to be + going to have been
  3. Blue indicates the present participle

The movie will have been playing for over an hour by the time Karen arrives.

She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally closes.

James will have been lecturing at the university for over a year by the time he leaves for Italy.

How long will you have been writing your novel before you finish it?

Cause-and-Effect in the Future
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the duration
  2. Green indicates the will have been OR the to be + going to have been
  3. Blue indicates the present participle
  4. Pale green indicates the because

Janet will be exhilarated when she finishes her painting because she will have been working on it for over three weeks.

Jason’s pottery skills will be improved when he returns because he is going to have been attending that seminar for six months.

Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.

Claudia’s English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years.

Inflection Definition: Modifies a word (not just a verb!) “to express different grammatical categories such as tense, grammatical mood, grammatical voice, aspect, person, number, and case” (Princeton University).

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When inflecting verbs, it is called conjugation.

When inflecting nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, it is called declension.

A.k.a. inflexion

Verbs Nouns
Singular Plural
sing
sang
sung
sings
singing
singer
song
songstress
singers
songs
songstresses
Exceptions
Definition: Some words are invariant or uninflected and are not affected by case, never taking a suffix or changing form.
Examples of Exceptions:
must
Rule: Concord or agreement is all about a singular noun being paired with a singular verb OR a plural noun paired with a plural verb.
Basic Examples of Nouns and Verbs Affecting Case:
the choir sings
Verb Case
Definition: Case is normally all about nouns, BUT verbs assign case while nouns get case and is determined by what the word does in the sentence. Each plays off the other.

There are four types of case:

Dative Case Definition: When the noun or pronoun is the indirect object of a verb.

The indirect object receives the direct object. Find the direct object by finding the verb and asking what? or whom?

Know that some pronouns will change.

Credit to: Shrives, “Dative Case”

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the what? you should ask (direct object)
  2. Orange indicates the verb
  3. Blue indicates the recipient of the direct object (dative case)

She gave the postman a letter.

Barney will send him the presentation tomorrow.

“Computers are useless. They can only give you answers.” – Pablo Picasso

“Thank you for sending me a copy of your book.” – Moses Hadas

Object of Prepositions Definition: In the dative case, prepositions take the objective case.

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Yes No
with me
with her
with him
with them
with I
with she
with he
with they
by us
by whom
by whomever
by we
by who
by whoever
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the preposition
  2. Blue indicates the pronoun in the objective case

So, tell me about me, handsome.

Pshaw, you can’t get that by us.

How is that concerning you?

Peabody, you’re with him.

Are you excepting her?

Who else is coming besides them?

By whomever . . .” she said with a dismissive wave of her hand.

And by whom is that said?

Genitive Case Definition: When a noun, pronoun, or adjective shows possession, it is in the genitive case.

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Nouns use either ‘s or of in front of a noun.

Personal pronouns may also be in the genitive case.

A.k.a. possessive case, second case

Credit to: Shrives, “Genitive Case”

Mary’s brush
book’s pages
cat’s meow
edge of the table
our house
use yours
my life
his bike
your obstinacy
her hairspray
its place
is hers
their dreams
whose kids

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the possessive noun
  2. Orange indicates the adjective
  3. Blue indicates the possessive pronoun
Nominative Case Definition: A noun or pronoun that is the subject of a sentence or when it completes a being.

A.k.a. subject case, subjective case

Credit to: Shrives, “Case in Grammar”; Maddox

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the subject of the verb
  2. Blue indicates the verb

He sang his poem.

Who rang the bell?

Maria will open the school.

Objective Case Definition: A noun or pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb or serves as the object of a preposition and functions as an object:

Who and whom are also in the objective case.

A.k.a. accusative case

Credit to: Shrives, “Objective Case”

Direct Object of a Verb Definition: A noun that receives the action and usually follows the verb

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verb
  2. Blue indicates the direct object

Please pass the butter.

Indirect Object of a Verb Rule: A noun to which the verb happens.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verb
  2. Blue indicates the indirect object

Please pass the butter to Simon.

Please pass Simon the butter.

Object of a Preposition Rule: Noun which follows a preposition, e.g., in, on, at, near, or by.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the preposition
  2. Blue indicates the noun

She lives near Brighton.

Are you going by the market anytime soon?

She’s on the television.

I told you it was in your inbox.

Object Complement Rule: Noun, pronoun, or adjective which follows a direct object and renames it or tells what the direct object has become. It is most often used with verbs of creating or nominating such as make, name, elect, paint, call, etc.

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Object Complement No object complement
Williams is the mayor

painting a door red

Mayor Williams

painting a red door

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the object complement
Subject of an Infinitive
(to + verb)
Definition: When a pronoun stands in front of an infinitive.

A personal pronoun is in the objective case when it is a subject of the infinitive.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the infinitive
  2. Orange indicates the personal pronoun
  3. Blue indicates the subject of the infinitive

We wanted Bill to go to the airport.

Simon helped me to record the data.

No one saw the prisoner escape.

Simon helped me record the data.

10 Verb Types:
Action, a.k.a., Dynamic Definition: Shows physical or mental action and are either transitive or intransitive. They can also be used in continuous tense.

Dynamic verbs are the opposite of stative verbs.

Three major types of dynamic verbs, and they all denote events:

  1. Accomplishment verbs
  2. Achievement verbs
  3. Activity verbs

CAUTION: Ambitransitive verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive function while ditransitive verbs are found in sentences which have both a direct object and an indirect object in it.

A.k.a. dynamic, event, fientive

Accomplishment Dynamic Verb Definition: Expresses action that has a logical endpoint; events take place over a period of time and then end.

Credit to: Miller

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Van Gogh painted a picture.

We built a hay bale house.

Achievement Dynamic Verb Definition: Expresses action that occurs instantaneously.

Credit to: Miller

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I recognize George from last night at the dance.

Hannah found her ring.

Activity Dynamic Verb Definition: Expresses action that can go on for an indefinite period of time with no built-in boundary. There is no terminal point — a point before which the activity cannot be said to have taken place, and after which the activity cannot continue.

Credit to: Miller

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Hank cut down the tree.

Mary baked two dozen types of cookies and three pies yesterday afternoon.

They painted the living room a gorgeous sea green.

We swam all afternoon.

Intransitive and Transitive Verbs Transitive Action
(followed by a Direct Object)
Intransitive
(watch for the prepositional phrase)

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Definition: Expresses an action that someone or something does to something or someone. Definition: Expresses an action that happens by itself.
Rule: Always followed by a noun, infinitive (to + verb), or pronoun functioning as a direct object.

Because it is used with an object, a passive form can be used.

Rule: Never followed by a direct object, but, may be followed by adjectives, adverbs, or prepositional phrases.

Because it does not take an object, no passive form can be used.

He swallowed hard candy.
She sells seashells.
Helene paints the canvas.
Helene envisions the final painting.
Helene is wearing her painting clothes.
He swallowed hard.
He sat there quietly.
Helene paints.
Helene paints beautifully.
Helene paints for an hour.
Ambitransitive Verb Definition: Can be both transitive and intransitive without changing the verb.

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Transitive
(with direct object)
Intransitive
(with indirect object)
I read my newspaper. I always read in bed.
Ditransitive Verb Definition: Takes both a direct object and an indirect object.

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Rule: If the direct object ± a personal pronoun, then it doesn’t matter if the direct or indirect object is first.

Rule: If the direct object is first, the indirect object is preceded by a preposition.

Rule: In the passive voice, either of the two objects can be the subject of the sentence, AND if the direct object is the subject of the passive sentence, the direct object is preceded by a preposition.

List of Ditransitive Verbs
allow
ask
award
bake
bring
build
buy
charge
cook
forgive
give
grant
hand
leave
make
offer
order
owe
pass
pay
promise
read
save
sell
send
show
teach
tell
throw
write
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Yellow indicates the direct object
  2. Green indicates the ditransitive verb
  3. Orange indicates the indirect object
  4. Blue indicates the preposition
  5. Pale green indicates the subject of the passive sentence

He gave her the letter.

The company paid the customer $500 as compensation.

The company paid $500 to the customer as compensation.

The compensation was $500, and the company paid it to the customer without delay.

The customer was paid $500 as compensation.

Five hundred dollars was paid to the customer as compensation.

Credit to: Sentence deconstruction courtesy of Ditransitive

Ergative Definition: Can be both transitive and intransitive depending upon whether the noun becomes the object (makes the verb transitive) or if the noun is the subject (makes the verb intransitive).

A.k.a. unaccusative verb

Credit to: CMOS, p 5.99

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Intransitive Transitive
The door opened. I opened the door.
The drapes were drawn. I drew the drapes.
The books shipped on August 15. The company shipped the books on August 15.
Intransitive Verb Definition: A verb that does not take a direct object.
Intransitive Verb Phrase: Rule: The phrasal verb cannot take a direct object.

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Verb + Particle It Means Example
Catch on To understand After I explained the math problem, she began to catch on.

She began to catch on the math problem

She began to catch on to the math problem.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the preposition required to separate the phrasal verb from the direct object
Transitive Verb Definition: A verb that takes one or more direct objects.

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I threw the ball.
I drank my milk.
I fell to my knees.
He ate a hamburger.
I slept the day away.
I drove the getaway car.
I understand nothing.
I read a book.
I see dead people.
I dreamt of evil.
I opened the door.
Factitive Verb Definition: A type of transitive verb that can take two objects.

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Partial List of Factitive Verbs
choose
elect
judge
name
make select
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the direct object
  2. Blue indicates the second object

They judged Henry’s dog Best of Show.

The men elected Frickfrack the new shop foreman.

U.S. News and World Report named our college the best in the northeast.

Auxiliary Verb
Definition: “A verb used to add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which it appears — for example, to express tense, aspect, modality, voice, emphasis, etc. Auxiliary verbs usually “help” a main verb, the main verb providing the main meaning of the clause in which it appears (Wikipedia, “Auxiliary”).

Form: helping verb + main verb

Auxiliary verbs are further separated into primary and modal.

CONTENTS:

A.k.a. helper verb, helping verb, verbal auxiliary

Principal Auxiliary Verb Definition: Marked for tense, person, or number (CMOS, 5.123).
They add information on tense and aspect.

Rule: Principal auxiliary verbs can function as main verbs or combine with secondary verb forms and modal auxiliary verbs to form an inflected auxiliary verb phrase.

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List of Principal Auxiliary Verbs
be do have
am don’t haven’t
are / aren’t does / doesn’t has / hasn’t
is / isn’t did / didn’t had / hadn’t
was / wasn’t doing having
were / weren’t done
being
been
Inflected Auxiliary Verb Phrase
Definition: A combination of a principal auxiliary verb + a secondary verb OR a modal verb.
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the secondary verb
  2. Blue indicates the principal auxiliary verb
  3. Orange indicates the modal verb

I am walking.

Take an umbrella because it might be raining.

Could it have been stopped?

It has to work.

It does take time.

Modal Definition: A type of auxiliary verb that changes the mood, the meaning of the main verb, by giving advice, suggestions, prohibitions, predictions, or making requests using present tense, present continuous, and present perfect continuous tenses.

Credit to: 3.14

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It involves the affirmation of possibility and impossibility, existence and non-existence, contingency and necessity.

Modal verbs create different impressions depending on the verb used. Just consider the different interpretation you would have when you heard I may go, I should go, or I would go.

Each modal verb can express two kinds of meaning:

  1. Extrinsic meaning – People express their ideas or thoughts about what is or isn’t going to happen and describes prediction or possibility
  2. Intrinsic meaning – Gives the idea that people have some control over the actions or events and describes a necessity, permission, or willingness

It is continuing to evolve over time and differently in different places, as is typical of the English language.

Don’t forget that the modal verbs all started life as fully paid up lexical verbs, e.g., will meant the same as want (and still does, in some restricted senses, if you will).

Form: [modal verb] + [bare to infinitive]

Besides modal verbs, there are also:

  • Modal adjectives: advisable, crucial, imperative, likely, necessary, probable, possible
  • Modal adverbs: arguably, maybe, perhaps, probably, possibly, surely
  • Modal nouns: decree, demand, necessity, requirement, request

NOTE: Modality is the quality or fact of being modal.

A.k.a. modal expression

Rule: Modality allows for the expression of differing degrees of high, medium, and low modality.

The greater the certainty or obligation, the higher the modality.

List of Common Modal Verbs
can *, can’t could couldn’t
may *, mayn’t might mightn’t
must *, ° mustn’t need to °, ought to °
shall *, ° shan’t should shouldn’t
will *, won’t would wouldn’t
used to ° has to
Rule: A modal verb cannot act as a main verb and does not use an inflectional ending (-s, -ed, -ing, or -en); it’s always a helping verb.

When a modal verb is used with a principal auxiliary verb, the modal verb is always in front of the primary.

I will read your text message later.

We could meet at 6 p.m.

They may arrive a little bit early.

You should stop moaning.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the modal verb
  2. Underline indicates the main verb
There are degrees of modality.
Rule: There are four fundamental rules you need to bear in mind when using modals:
Always come first in a verb phrase except for questions I can swim very well.
Followed by bare infinitives (without the to) You should be more careful next time.
Can’t add -s, -ed, or -ing to modals Mary must work hard today.
Form their negative and interrogative like other auxiliary verbs I can’t dive.

Credit to: Quick

Modal Auxiliary Verb Phrase
Rule: The modal verb always precedes the main verb.
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the modal verb
  2. Blue indicates the bare infinitive

Camilla may become queen.

Can mean Camilla is likely to become queen AND Camilla is allowed to become queen.

Only the context will make it clear which meaning is intended.

Extrinsic
(prediction or possibility)
Description Examples
certain or real possibility John’s not here yet. He must be stuck in traffic.
possibly true I think I might be coming down with the flu.
possibly true That may be a better solution.
Intrinsic
(necessity, permission, or willingness)
Description Examples
necessity The authorities must do something about the traffic congestion
permission Might I ask whether it would be a problem to resume the discussion at a later date?
permission Can I help you?
Linking Definition: An auxiliary verb that describes conditions and completes, equals, identifies, links a subject with its complement.

It is the opposite of an action verb which shows actions that can be accomplished.

A.k.a. copula, copular

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appear
become
feel
grow
look
remain
seem
smell
sound
taste
Basic Examples:
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the linking verb
  2. Blue indicates the action verb

The linguine tastes delicious.

Paul became a physician.

That dress becomes you.

Herbert smelled the cake.

The cake smelled good.

Catenative Definition: Verb that “chains” together other verbs in a sentence, which can result in a series of actions. When more than one verb is used, the first verb is a finite verb (inflected for person and number, tense, and mood: third person singular, present tense, indicative) and the rest of the verbs are nonfinite, forming nonfinite clauses, and using infinitive, present participle, or gerund forms as its complement.

A.k.a. catena, catenative auxiliary, chain verb

Rule: Begins with the primary verb and requires a chain verb to hook up the final action with that primary verb.

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Legend:

  1. Blue indicates the primary verb
  2. Green indicates the catenative verbs
  3. Orange indicates the direct object
  4. White-on-Green indicates the verb phrase complement

I decided to try again.

That house needs fixing.

I wanted to go shopping.

I helped to pack her bags.

Women are not allowed to wear shorts here.

You are requested to attend Her Majesty’s celebration.

You shouldn’t be reading in the dark.

Would you mind stopping the car, please?

As a chain Rule: Links a series to to + verbs (infinitive).

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Legend:

  1. Blue indicates the main verb
  2. Green indicates the chain verb

I thought we were going to try to plan to stop for world domination?

We promised to agree to try to make things work this time.

Being Definition: Shows a state of existence, shows thought or opinion, possession, senses, and/or emotions.

A stative verb cannot be used in a continuous tense as they cannot express a continuous (progressive) aspect as they don’t describe an action or activity by you.

The opposite of dynamic verbs.

A.k.a. stative

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Stative/
Being Verb
Words Examples
Being are
be
has
have
had been
is
was
were
will be
Helene is obsessed.

Helene will always be an artist.

Helene has been here for a month.

Helene was away last week.

Communication agree
deny
disagree
mean
promise
satisfy
surprise
I promise I’ll make it up to you.

Don’t you dare disagree with me!

Are you surprised?

Possession belong
concern
cost
depend
get
have
involve
matter
need
owe
own
possess
reach
Does it belong to you?
Senses or Emotions appear
feel
hate
hear
impress
like
love
need
prefer
see
seem
smell
sound
taste
want
wish
He feels the rhythms.

Can you taste the oak?

Thought or Opinion believe
imagine
know
mean
realize
recognize
remember
think
understand
Helene believes in her art.
Causative Definition: A subject indirectly causes things to happen using verbs such as make, get, and have.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the subject
  2. Blue indicates the causative verb

She made me go to the prom.

I had my car detailed.

Compound A two-part multi-word phrase that functions as a single verb.

If there are multiple compound phrases, commas are required for separation.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the compound verb phrase

Jill was accepted to Harvard but went to Yale instead.

Before mixing the ingredients for his world-famous cookies, Bobby swatted a fly buzzing around the kitchen and crushed a cockroach scurrying across the floor.

Before mixing the ingredients for his world-famous cookies, Bobby swatted a fly buzzing around the kitchen, crushed a cockroach scurrying across the floor, shooed the cat off the counter, picked his nose, scratched his armpit, licked his fingers, and sneezed.

Finite Definition: Makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can stand by itself as the main (and only finite) verb of a complete sentence (Finite; Ten). Any verbs following that finite verb in an independent clause are nonfinite verbs.

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Finite verbs may also be:

  • Active or passive
  • Singular or plural

General Rule: It is the main verb of an independent clause, which changes depending upon the subject or noun of the sentence.

She walks to school. She walked to school.
He drives to school. He drove to school.
She spins the yarn. She spun the yarn.
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the finite verb
Nonfinite Definition: A verb which is unfinished — usually descriptive — and cannot be the primary verb by itself. Nor does it provide even a hint at the person, number, or tense.

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Used alone as the main verb in a dependent clause, it becomes a nonfinite clause simply because the verb used is nonfinite, and it may function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

General Rule: A verb which is never used alone in an independent clause and doesn’t act like a verb. Nor does it have mood, tense, number, aspect, or person.

One or more nonfinite verbs may be associated with a finite verb in a finite clause as one of the elements of a verb catena.

A.k.a. non-finite, verbal

Nonfinite Verb Types
Gerunds Infinitives Participles
verb turned noun,
-ing
base verb,
to __
verb turned adjective,
(-ing or -ed)
I hate hiking.

While walking to school, she spotted a bluejay.

I started screaming at my parents for trying to send me to camp.

Arriving late, I saw the other kids, and they seemed to be excited.
(Grammarist)

I want to fly there. We ate our roasted chicken.

We watched our roasting chicken.

The sagging oak almost touched the ground.

The panting girl was bent over at the waist

Legend with nonfinite verbs highlighted:

  1. Gray indicates the dependent clause
  2. Green indicates the gerund
  3. Blue indicates the infinitive
  4. Orange indicates the participle
A comparison of finite versus nonfinite:
Finite Nonfinite
The dog sleeps.
The dog slept.
The sleeping dog

The sleeping dogs

The sleeping people

The sleeping tree

A complete sentence in present and past tense, even if it is short. Incomplete as we have no idea why we’re being told about a dog that is sleeping nor does the verb change simply because the subject changes
When a complete clause has more than one verb, only the first one is finite. The rest are nonfinite. (Grammar).
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the finite verb
  2. Blue indicates the nonfinite verb

The dog sleeps, eats, and howls.

I am going out to get groceries.

Coming around the corner, she saw a man breaking in to her house.

Iterative Definition: Indicates an action that repeats, is repeated, i.e., repetitive action, or habitual. Think of verbs ending in -er and -le that suggest repeated or habitual action.

A.k.a. frequentative, habitual, iterative activity, iterative aspect

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List of [Some] Iterative Verbs
babble
banging
battering
beeping
blabber
blinking
bobble
cackle
chatter
chuckle
clamber
clutter
crackle
crumble
curdle
dabble
dazzle
dribble
drizzle
fizzle
flashing
flitter
flutter
fondle
gamble
glimmer
gobble
gruntle
haggle
jiggle
joggle
jostle
muddle
nestle
nodding
nuzzle
paddle
patter
prattle
prickle
pucker
putter
rattle
scuffle
scuttle
sizzle
skipping
slither
sniffle
snuggle
sparkle
spatter
speckle
straddle
stutter
stammer
suckle
swaddle
swagger
tickle
tootle
topple
trample
twinkle
waddle
waggle
wrestle
Examples:
She chattered incessantly.

It sounded like a well-rehearsed patter.

The old witch cackled and clattered.

If that kid rattles his crib one more time . . .

The brook babbled and swirled merrily on its way.

Listening to him stutter and stammer his way through that speech is maddening.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the iterative verb
5 Verb Properties
The five properties are:

Verb Moods
Definition: Indicates a mental or emotional state — a state or sense of mind — in one’s relationships and/or interactions with others and expressed opinions and attitudes especially the relationship between speaker and hearer.

Moods can be divided into two main types:

  1. Realis – applies to the indicative mood declaring something has happened
  2. Irrealis – applies to all the rest, indicating that something is not actually the case

Moods also are categorized into one of two modalities:

  1. Deontic Mode
  2. Epistemic Mode

A.k.a. grammatical mode, grammatical mood, mode

Deontic Modality Definition: Describes whether one could or should be able to do something.

A weak deontic mood describes how a course of action is not recommended or is frowned upon.

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She may start.

She should start.

You may go at four o’clock.

All elections shall take place on schedule.

She can go.

You may go.

You should go.

You must go.

He must be there tomorrow at noon.

Epistemic Modality Definition: Describes the chance or possibility of something happening.

A weak epistemic mood includes the terms perhaps and possibly.

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She may have started.

He might be there.

He may be there.

He should be there by now.

He must be there by now.

Irrealis Mood vs Realis Mood

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Irrealis Realis
Definition: Both are broad categories of verbal moods used to express something that is:
Rule: Not known to be the case in reality: hypothetical, counterfactual, etc., essentially anything that is not describing physical reality. Principally used to indicate that something is a statement of fact, concrete and real; to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences.
Used by Moods: Conditional Mood
Hypothetical Mood
Inferential Mood
Potential Mood
Subjunctive Mood
Optative Mood
Indicative Mood
Examples: It is necessary that he work. He works.
I hope it works. It works.
I would be happy if she would tell me that they love me. She told me that she loved me.
Was the cat eating the mouse? The cat ate the mouse.
Do you think he’ll call me? He called you and left a message.

A.k.a. REAL

Credit to: Realis Mood

Conditional Mood Definition: A verb form that expresses a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event that is contingent on another set of circumstances:

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  • Make requests
  • An expression of under what condition something would happen
  • Express a proposition whose validity is dependent on some condition, possibly counterfactual

This is irrealis mood.

Rule: Also uses helping or auxiliary verbs such as could, might, should, and would.

Sometimes it is connected to a clause which is in the subjunctive mood.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the conditional
  2. Orange indicates the conditional + auxiliary

I would like a cup of coffee, please.

If you were here, you could have done it.

If I were in Tokyo, I would meet my friend.

If Jim had come here, I could have given him the pen.

Had Jane participated in the contest, she could have won the first prize.

Had you come to the office, you could have done the task.

I would like a glass of orange juice, please.

I might be able to attend the program if I can finish my work earlier.

Had I been there, I could have helped you.

If Rick had performed better, he could have won the first prize.

If John is not at the office, he might be outside.

If you want to attend the class, you should start now.

Had Aric started on time from home, he would not miss the flight.

Hypothetical Mood Definition: An epistemic grammatical mood that represents something that might have happened but did not.

This is irrealis mood.

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You could have cut yourself.

You might have hurt yourself.

He could have gone over the cliff.

Imperative Mood Definition: Issues a command or makes a firm request. Always drops the subject.

It can end in a full stop or an exclamation mark, depending on the forcefulness of the command.

A.k.a. command mood

Credit to: Shrives, “Imperative”

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(you) Talk.
(we) Let’s talk.
Rule: Using a period at the end of the sentence keeps it polite or in the form of advice.
Hang up the phone.
Put it down.
Get out.
Smell this rose.
Move those boxes.
Hang a left at the big oak.
Rule: Using an exclamation mark makes this a forceful or excited command.
I hate you!
Stop!
Get out!
Turn left!
Clean your room now, young man!
Indicative Mood Definition: States facts or asks questions: what is happening (present); what happened (past); and, what will happen (future).

Uses realis mood.

A.k.a. declarative, ind.

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He comes.
I ran.
We will look.
Inferential Mood Definition: Reports unwitnessed events without confirming them. Often, there is no doubt as to the veracity of the statement, but simply the fact that the speaker was not personally present at the event forces them to use this mood.

This is irrealis mood.

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If it were on the news, we’d know for sure.

He must have gone.

He is said to have gone.

Potential Mood Definition: A mood of probability indicating that, in the opinion of the speaker, the action or occurrence is considered likely.

It is formed by means of the auxiliaries can, may, must, or ought.

This is irrealis mood.

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She may go.

She ought to do it.

Can she hold back?

Must she go?

Subjunctive Mood Definition: States possibilities:

  • Usually found in a clause that starts with if
  • A clause following a verb that expresses doubt, a wish, regret, a request, a demand, or a proposal
  • What someone else said, thought, or believed

This is irrealis mood.

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It uses the same tense as the indicative for present and past, while the third person singular (it can be a single noun or a third person singular pronoun) drops the -s or -es to use any tense BUT the third person singular. It is also completely different for to be (Burckmyer, 14-15)).

This is also a verb type.

It has been referred to as the “subjective”. Doesn’t exist. The proper term is subjunctive.

How To Be, Was, and Were Fit in the Subjunctive
Be Was Were
(Hypothetical Subjunctive) (Fact Only) (Hypothetical Subjunctive)
Present tense Past tense of to be for first and third person singular Past tense of to be for first person and second person singular and plural AND first and third person plural *
I ask that you be in Hawaii next week for the conference. Last week, I was in Hawaii. Helen and George wish they were in Hawaii. Heck, I wish I were in Hawaii.
So be a movie star if you want! When I was younger, I wanted to be a movie star. If she were younger, she would want to be a movie star.
Gregory’s preference is that your mother be his English teacher. Your mother was my English teacher in high school If I were still in high school, I’d want your mother to be my English teacher.
The Irrealis Were
Definition: When used as a subjunctive, were steps outside its role as a past tense form and outside the concept of time.

A.k.a. were-subjunctive, incorrectly as past subjective

Examples of How It’s Wrong
YES NO
If I were you, I’d run. If I was you, I’d run.
I wish he were able to pitch more accurately. I wish he was able to pitch more accurately.
His requirement is that everyone be computer literate. His requirement is that everyone is computer literate.
He recommended that each driver report his tips. He recommended that each driver reports his tips.
Examples of Doing It Right
Expresses a condition
contrary to fact
Requests, demands,
or suggests
If I were a wealthy man (but I’m not), I’d fly us to Bali.

If he were arriving tomorrow, we could go to the concert (but he’s not coming until next week).

I ask that you be dignified and refrain from laughing.

I ask that Shelly refrain if possible from weeping.

Roger recommended that Larry be on hand to launch the catboat.

The evil pirate king commanded that Davy walk the plank.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the subjunctive clause
  2. Blue indicates the verb
Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive
to advise (that)
to ask (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to determine (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to move (that)
to order (that)
to pray (that)
to prefer (that)

to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to regret (that)

to request (that)
to require (that)

to suggest (that)
to urge (that)
to wish (that)
It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)
Quick Look at to be as a Subjunctive
It was commonly used in Elizabethan England as can be seen in writings by Shakespeare, Jonson, and others.
  Present Past
Singular I be
you be
he, she, it be
I were
you were
he, she, it were
Plural we be
they be
we were
they were
Examples:

If snow be white, why then her breast are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
– Shakespeare

If she be not so to me
What care I how fair she be?
– Ben Jonson.

Optative Mood Definition: A subjunctive mood that expresses a wish, hope, or desire, such as a meditative blessing or other such idioms.

This is irrealis mood.

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God help us!

God save the Queen!

Let there be light.

May you be forgiven.

So help me God.

May the best man win!

May all your troubles be small!

“May you be safe and protected from danger.
May you be happy and peaceful.
May you be healthy and strong.
May you have ease and well-being.” – Wilson

Number Rule: The tense of the verb must agree with the noun, whether it’s singular or plural. A plural noun requires a plural verb and vice versa.

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I write
you write
s/he, it writes
we write
they write
I climb
you climb
s/he, it climbs
we climb
they climb
the truck runs
the trucks run
the boat floats
the boats float
Singular versus Plural Verbs
Definition: It’s all about the subject-verb agreement. A singular subject uses a singular verb whereas the plural subject uses a plural verb. Keep in mind that some nouns can be considered singular or plural, depending upon sentence context.
Base Verb Singular Plural
to walk I walk the dogs.

She walks the dog.

It can even walk the dog.

We walk the dog.

They walk the dogs.

The dog walks to his bowl. The dogs walk to their bowls.
to be This shirt is too small for me. These clothes are too small for me.
Sausage is great on a pizza.

Sausage is great on pizzas.

Basil and mozzarella are great on a pizza.

Basil and mozzarella are great on pizzas.

to do I do adore a basil and mozzarella pizza.

Tom does too.

Does she or doesn’t she?

Neither Henry nor Elaine does dishes.

Peter and Maggie do not like pizza at all. Can you believe that?

We do vacation together once a year.

They do come with us.

Henry and Elaine do not do dishes.

Person Definition: Refers to who is speaking, distinguishing speakers and addressees from one another and from other individuals:

  • First person – I, we
  • Second person – you, y’all
  • Third person – he, she, it, them, they

You must pay attention to verb agreement between person and verb.

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Person
and/or
Point-of-View
Number Personal Pronoun Conjugating
To Be Regular Verbs
First person singular I I am
I was
I were
I talk
Second person singular and plural you you are
you were
you talk
Third person singular she
he
it
she is / was / were
he is / was / were
it is / was / were
she talks
he talks
it talks
First person plural we we are
we were
we talk
Third person plural they they are
they were
they talk
Voice Definition: Shows if the subjects acts or is acted upon — and always with a transitive verb. If the sentence is in the active voice and performs the action or the passive voice and receives the action (CMOS, p. 5.112-13).

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Active Voice Passive Voice
Definition: The subject of the sentence is what is doing the action while the thing receiving the action is the object. Definition: The subject of the sentence receives the action, they’re acted upon with the thing doing the action sometimes included near the end of the sentence. The key is that the passive voice is always formed by some form of to be (actual or implied) or using the colloquial get + the past participle of the verb.

The current style of writing abjures the passive voice, but Chicago states that it can be useful “if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action”.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

The car crashed into the guardrail. The guardrail was crashed into by the car.
Johnny pulls his wagon. The wagon is pulled by Johnny.
The lawyer advised his client to settle. The client was advised by his lawyer to settle.
We gave the matter careful consideration. The matter will be given careful consideration.
Performative Definition: A verb that performs the act itself.

You can figure out if a verb is performative by using the hereby test:

  • I hereby confer upon you . . .
  • I hereby promise to . . .

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Partial List of Performative Verbs
baptize
bequeath
bet
confer
do (wedding vow)
give
move
name
order
perform
promise
quit
resign
sentence
stop
swear
Examples:
I resign performs the act of resignation
I baptize thee performs the act of baptism
I name . . . performs the act of naming
Prepositional Rule: All prepositional verbs are transitive and have direct objects because a preposition always has an object.

The structure of a prepositional verb is [ verb ] + [ preposition ]

CAUTION: Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. Do not put the direct object between the two parts. For example, we must say look after the baby and not look the baby after.

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Partial List of Prepositional Verbs
agree to
agree with
believe in
break down
drive through
drop back
knock at
laugh at
listen to
look after
look at
look for
rely on
sail through
talk about
talked to
wait for
Examples:
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the direct object
  2. Blue indicates the prepositional verb

I believe in a rigorous run in the morning.

Can you look after my dog for a few days?

Everyone is talking about that new movie.

Wait for me!

Regular, Irregular, and Defective Verbs
Regular Verb Definition: Regular verbs are also known as weak verb forms and form their past tense and past participle by adding -d, -ed, and sometimes -t to its base form.

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Base Past Tense Present Participle
bless blessed
blest
blessing
clean cleaned cleaning
paint painted painting
sleep slept sleeping
Irregular Verb Definition: Irregular verbs are also known as strong verb forms; they are considered irregular because their past tense and past participle forms are all over the place.

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Base Past Past Participle Gerund
be was, were been being
find found found finding
go went gone going
know knew known knowing
lie lay lain lying
steal stole stolen stealing
tear tore torn tearing
write wrote written writing
Defective Verb Definition: A verb with no infinitive, gerund, present participle, or past participle, and therefore a verb that cannot be used in all moods or tenses.

Credit to: Defective

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The most common defective verbs in English are also auxiliary verbs and include:

am
been
begone
beware
can *
could *
may *
might *
must *
ought *
shall *
should *
was
will *
would *

* These are also modal verbs.

Reciprocal Definition: Expresses the idea of an action that is done by two or more people or things to each other.

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Paul and Claire kissed.

The team swam well at the meet.

We danced all night long.

We played our new game that afternoon.

Reporting Definition:
Reporting verbs vary in strength from weak to neutral to strong. To suggest is weaker than to argue while reveal would be neutral.
Neutral Definition: Verbs that do not indicate a judgment and are used to say what the writer does and does not do.

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Partial List of Neutral Reporting Verbs
advise + [question clause *]ask if
ask + [object] + [to infinitive] ask whether
assume
believe (unless this is a strong belief)
decide + [object] + [to infinitive]decide + [question clause *]decide that
demonstrate
describe
describe + [question clause *]discover + [question clause *]discuss + [question clause *]examine
expect + [object] + [to infinitive]except that
explain + [question clause *]explain that
forget + [question clause *]go on to say that
indicate
know if
know + [question clause *]know whether
learn + [question clause *]mention
mention that
note
observe
point out
realize + [question clause *]remember if
remember + [question clause *]remember whether
report
report that
reveal
reveal + [question clause *]reveal that
say if
say + [question clause *]say that
say whether
see if
see + [question clause *]see whether
show
state
study
take into consideration
understand + [question clause *]understand that
* Clause that starts with a question word.
Tentative, a.k.a., Weak Definition: The writer has an inclination to believe something but is hesitant.

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Partial List of Tentative Reporting Verbs
add that
admit that
advise + [object] + [to infinitive]agree that
beg + [object] + [to infinitive]claim that
comment that
doubt that
guarantee + [object] + [to infinitive]guarantee that
guess + [question clause *]hope + [object] + [to infinitive]hope that
hypothesize
imagine + [question clause *]intimate
imply
invite + [object] + [to infinitive]moot
posit the view that
postulate
propose
propose that
question the view that
recommend
speculate
suggest
suggest + [question clause *]suggest that
teach + [object] + [to infinitive]teach + [question clause *]tell + [object] + [to infinitive]tell + [question clause *]tell that
think + [question clause *]think that
wonder + [question clause *]
* Clause that starts with a question word.
Strong Definition: The writer puts forth strong arguments and is absolutely sure of his or her ground.

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Partial List of Strong Reporting Verbs
argue that
assert
boast that
challenge
claim
command + [object] + [to infinitive]confirm that
contend
counter the argument that
counter the view that
deny
emphasize
forbid + [object] + [to infinitive]insist that
instruct + [object] + [to infinitive]
maintain
negate
promise + [object] + [to infinitive]promise that
refute
reject
strongly believe that
support the view that
swear + [object] + [to infinitive]swear that
theorize
threaten + [object] + [to infinitive]threaten that
warn + [object] + [to infinitive]warn that
* Clause that starts with a question word.
Subjunctive While the subjunctive is a verb type, it is also a mood.

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You’ll find the details about subjunctive in Verb Moods.
Verb Aspect
Definition: Frequently confused with verb tense, aspect is about the flow of time in a given situation whether it’s an action, event, or state — a single point of time, a continuous range of time, or a sequence of discrete points in time, in other words, is the action going on or is it completed.

Aspect tells duration, completion, or frequency and how it relates to the time of actiona temporal how — whereas tense tells the time of a situation compared to a different time — a distinct temporal when, its location in time (Princeton University).

Aspect also demonstrates how the speaker views the situation and how they convey their view through speech.

There are four types of aspect:

  1. Simple
  2. Perfect
  3. Perfect Progressive
  4. Progressive
TENSE Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect Progressive
Present I go I have eaten I am eating I have been eating
Past I ate I had eaten I was eating I had been eating
Future I will eat I will have eaten I will be eating I will have been eating
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verbs that must agree
  2. Strikethrough indicates the verb in the wrong tense
Simple Aspect Definition: No emphasis of completed or on-going action; no aspect.

A.k.a. indefinite aspect, present indefinite, present simple, unitary and bounded

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I listen
we hear
they go
Perfect Aspect Definition: Action is completed.

It’s tense is present perfect.

It’s very handy for describing foregrounded actions within the scene in a story.

Form: have + -ed (of the main verb)

A.k.a. aorist, complete aspect, on-going and unbounded, perfective aspect

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the present perfect
  2. Blue indicates the past tense of the main verb

She has eaten it.

We had left.

When will you have finished?

The tsunami had slammed into the shore, swept buildings off their foundations, and torn through the village.

Progressive Definition: Describes action that is on-going and can be habitual (describes an event or state that occurred over a period of time).

It’s very handy for setting the background scene in a story.

Form: be + -ing (of the main verb)

Explore the tenses: Present Progressive, Past Progressive, or Future Progressive

A.k.a. continuing aspect, continuous, imperfective

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I was eating.

They are calling the next band.

I am reading.

Were you shouting?

He will be sitting over there.

The snow was blowing everywhere.

Habitual Aspect Definition: Describes action that occurred over a period of time.

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He used to live here.

She used to call me every night.

We used to go dancing every weekend.

Henry used to walk for miles.

Iterative Aspect Definition: Describes the uncountable repetition of an event or state.

A.k.a. frequentative, repetitive

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He was sniffling all day.

The baby was coughing and coughing.

The constant flickering of the monitor was giving me a headache.

Mom, he’s kicking me.

The blinking light of my alarm clock was keeping me awake.

Perfect Progressive Definition: Action is on-going, and then finished.

Form: have + [past participle of be] + [verb-ing of the main verb]

Explore the tenses: Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive, or Future Perfect Progressive.

A.k.a. continuing relevance

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I have been eating all day.

She has been crying off and on for hours.

We have been eating dinner.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Definition: The subject and verb must agree in number, in other words, if the noun is singular then the verb must be singular, if the noun is plural, so must the verb be plural.

Some nouns can be interpreted two different ways: singular OR plural. This is considered notional agreement.

he gives gives is singular
they give give is the plural
Uses Singular Verb Uses Plural Verb
The car races down the street. The cars race down the street.
The cat chases the mouse.
The cat chases the mice.
The cats chase the mouse.
The cats chase the mice.
Singular vs Plural Verbs Caution: Since verbs don’t always add an “s” to form a plural, the trick is to run through the “he” / “they” pronouns and try the verb out.

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Rule: Singular verbs use I, a single you, he, she, or it. Plural verbs use a plural you, we, or they.

Be easy on yourself, as it’s not always clear whether the subject is singular or plural.

Below are some examples of tricky ones.

Some Tricky Examples
Uses Singular Verb Uses Plural Verb
The number of units has been reported to be 50.

Number is singular.

A number of measurements have been made.

Several measurements have been made.

In some areas 60% of the workforce is unemployed.

Percentage makes this a singular subject.

It appears that 30 g are required daily.

More than one gram makes the subject plural.

The most part of the compounds is inactive.

Part is the head, so to speak, of this phrase, which makes it a singular subject.

The majority of the tests were performed in Lund.

The majority can be interpreted as most which makes this a plural subject.

A total of 32 measurements has been made.

Total is one, so the subject is singular.

Thirty-two measurements have been made.

Thirty-two is definitely more than ONE measurement, so that have is plural.

Is Mom or Dad coming to the performance?

The or makes the subject one or the other, so singular.

Sugar and flour are needed to make the cake.

The subject is the ingredients . . . those plural ingredients *grin*

Either my sisters or Grandpa is going to the park.

The closest subject, Grandpa, is singular.

Either Grandpa or my sisters are going to the park.

The closest subject, sisters, is plural

Nobody knows what’s going on.

Nobody is an indefinite singular pronoun.

Both of us are going on vacation this week.

Both is the subject, and as an indefinite plural pronoun, indicates more than one.

Some sugar is required for taste.

Sugar is an uncountable noun, so it’s singular.

Most of the cookies were eaten.

Cookies are a countable noun, so it’s plural.

The jury has finally reached a decision.

Jury is a collective singular noun and hence uses a singular verb.

The majority rules most of the time.

Majority, however, is a collective plural noun and hence uses a plural verb form.

Ooh, there is a hair in my soup!

Sometimes the subject follows the verb. Thankfully, it’s only one hair.

There are ten cookies left.

Again with the subject following the verb, oy vey. And since there is more than one cookie, it’s plural.

Rule: Do NOT switch tenses within a sentence! Sentences require a subject and a verb, and these two items must agree.

YES NO
Getting ready to scale the wall, Eleanor uncoiled the climbing rope, nearly 200-feet long. She put on her harness, then knotted the rope onto it. At last she began her ascent. Getting ready to scale the wall, Eleanor uncoiled the climbing rope, nearly 200-feet long. She put on her harness, then knotted the rope onto it. At last she begins her ascent.
The president shares a light moment with the prime minister, who is wearing his country’s traditional headgear and robe.
OR
The president shared a light moment with the prime minister, who was wearing his country’s traditional headgear and robe.
The president shares a light moment with the prime minister, who was wearing his country’s traditional headgear and robe.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verbs that must agree
  2. Strikethrough indicates the verb in the wrong tense

Credit to: Burckmyer, 12

Rule: The tense of the verb will affect how the verb ending creates the singular or plural agreement.

This being English, the below explanation is basic as far as verb endings go and addresses only the simple present, past, and future.

Depending upon the spelling and how the NOUN ends — “s”, “ss” or “x” are standard endings, but there are also the irregular ones such as oxen, etc.

The plural form of every regular VERB will be the base word and will not end with “-s” or “-es” unless the spelling of the base word usually ends with “s”.

Verb Tense Definition Singular Examples Plural Examples
Present Nouns ADD an “s” to the singular form

Verbs REMOVE an “s” from the singular form

The boy smiles.

The man confesses.

The ox lows.

The boys smile.

The men confess.

The oxen low.

Past Verbs do not change to indicate singular or plural. The boy smiled.

The man confessed.

The ox lowed.

The boys smiled.

The men confessed.

The oxen lowed.

Future Add will in front of the present tense verb. The boy will smile.

The man will confess.

The ox will low.

The boys will smile.

The men will confess.

The oxen will low.

Rule: Pay attention to whether actions are in the near past, the past, or the far past. It will affect the tense you use.
YES NO
She was every inch a queen and had been raised to be so.

Well, she had been raised to be a queen before she actually became one.

She was every inch a queen and was raised to be so.

Credit to: Burckmyer 12

I learned that Meg’s husband had died far from home in Pakistan.

His death happened first; the writer learned about it later on.

I learned that Meg’s husband died far from home in Pakistan.

Credit to: Burckmyer 13

Rule: An exception is “unvarying truths” — “writing in the past BUT speaking of something that has always been and always will be the case uses present tense.”

Credit to: Burckmyer, 13

Galileo was a follower of Copernicus, who stated that the earth revolves around the sun.

I reminded Miranda that it takes two to make an argument.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the present tense
  2. Blue indicates the verbs that must agree
Rule: Different tenses create different effects.

Credit to: Burckmyer, 21

Forceful sounding:
I expect your report on cryogenic metallurgy by Thursday.

A gentler version:
I am expecting your report on cryogenic metallurgy by Thursday.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verb
Notional Agreement Definition: Some nouns can be interpreted as being singular OR plural collective nouns. If you see the noun as a single unit, then the verb is singular. If your interpretation of the noun is that it involves a group of individual units, then it’s plural and requires a plural verb.

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Noun/Verb
Singular
Interpreted As . . . Noun/Verb
Plural
Interpreted As . . .
The government is considering the proposal. Government is seen as a unit, a single group. The government are considering the proposal. Government is seen as a collection of individual people.
The jury has awarded custody to the grandmother. The jury is acting as one unit. The jury members have been arguing for five days. The focus is on the individuals within the jury.
Politics is an interesting subject. Looks at politics as a single topic. The politics of the situation were complicated. There are many different aspects to the situation.
The pair of scissors is on the table. Pair is the operative verb here, and it’s singular. The scissors are on the table. Scissors is a plural form, and therefore needs a plural verb.
My favorite topic is Poems by Longfellow. The reference is to a single topic. Poems by Longfellow are my favorite topic. All of Longfellow’s poems are his favorite topic; it’s a plural noun, so it takes a plural verb.
None of you claims responsibility for this incident? None of you implies a group of people, however they are being addressed as one unit. None of you claim responsibility for this incident? Even though none of you is still a group, they are being addressed as individuals.
Verbal
Definition: Verbals are forms of verbs used as other parts of speech such as nouns; adjectives; adverbs; infinitives; gerunds; participles; acts as a subject; or, creates verbal phrases, but remember that a verbal ceases to act as a verb unless “used with one or more auxiliary verbs“.

Verbals may also “carry objects or take modifiers and complements” and can nontraditionally be applied to finite and nonfinite verbs.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verbal

Credit to: Nordquist, “Difference”

As Gerund Definition: A verbal can function as a noun. See Gerund for more details.

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We can only learn to love by loving (Nordquist, “Gerunds”; Murdoch).
As Infinitive Definition: A verbal that can function as an adjective, adverb, or noun (see Infinitive for more details).

It’s usually recognizable as a to verb.

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We can only learn to love by loving (Nordquist, “Gerunds”; Murdoch.
As Participle Definition: A verbal turned into a noun that is used as an adjective using the participle endings of -ed and -ing. See Participle for more details.

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The eagles swooped and hovered, leaning on the air, and swung close together, feinting and screaming with delight (Nordquist, “Participial”).

My reading group is looking forward to next month’s choice.

Using the Verbal . . .
As Subject Verb Definition: Functioning as a noun, a verbal will occupy a noun’s position within a sentence.

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Reading is my favorite indoor sport.
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
As Subject Complement Definition: Adjective or a noun that renames or defines the subject in some way. See the post on Complement.

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My cat’s favorite activity is sleeping.
As Object Verb Definition: The verbal functions as the object of the verb.

A.k.a. verbal object

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They do not appreciate my singing.

I like to read all the time.

We intended to leave early.

Phil agreed to give me a ride.

They were asked to bring some food.

As Object of Preposition Definition: A noun that follows a preposition is the object of the preposition and receives the verbal.

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NOTE: To find the object of the preposition:

  1. Find the preposition
  2. Put the preposition in the blank and ask “__ who / __ what?” about the verbal

You may also want to explore the post “Prepositions” for the entry on the noun phrase as the object of a preposition.

Nouns: As Object of the Verbal

The police arrested him for speeding.

Jennifer sits beside me in class.

Morgan’s house is across the street.

The play will begin at 7:00.

Legend:

  1. Purple indicates the preposition
  2. Blue indicates the noun
Verbification Definition: The creation of a verb from a noun, adjective, or other word.

A.k.a. conversion, null derivation, verbify, zero derivation

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Verb Becomes Noun
mail email
access gain access to the file
talk, walk Don’t talk the talk if you can’t walk the walk.
experience (have an) experience
command (he’s in) command
Vector Verb Definition: A type of phrase in which the main meaning comes from the noun that follows the verb of motion or position.

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A vector (light) verb is one part of a compound verb, a part that carries any inflections, indicating tense, mood, or aspect, but provides only fine shades of meaning, countering the bleaching of meaning of words — the same process by which awesome and terrific come to simply mean good.

Vectors add flexibility to English: it allows us to have and take all manner of things without requiring specific verbs for them. We do not need a dedicated word for baking bread or cleaning the bathroom. And we can distinguish ineffable matters of nuance: the difference between having coffee and drinking coffee, for example, or between napping and taking a nap.

CAUTION: The vector verb appears to be an auxiliary verb but it’s not.

A.k.a. light verb

Credit to: Battistella

Partial List of Typical Vector Verbs
all
come
do
fall
give
go
have
make
put
rise
sit
take
throw
Rule: The noun that follows typically provides a fuller description of the action verb and creating a complex predicate.
Vector Verb Example
do do battle

do business

do the wash

give give a talk

give a call

give a demonstration

have have a cry

have a look

have a drink

make make a claim

make cookies

make a fuss

take take a walk

take a nap

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the noun that follows
Rule: Go with a lighter vector verb.
Vector Verb Example
create create a ruckus
effect effect a change
hold hold an opinion
harbor harbor a resentment
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the noun that follows
Rule: And the set of nouns that can contribute their semantic heft is wide as well.
Vector Verb Example
have have a drink

have a beer

have coffee

have breakfast, a snack, a bite to eat

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the noun that follows
Rule: Some light verbs, especially those with give, employ a second noun to create an interrupted compound verb.
Vector Verb Example
give give the sheets an airing

give the blankets an airing

give the room an airing

give the counter a wipe

give the tabletop a wipe

give the baby a wipe

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the interrupted compound verb
  2. Blue indicates the noun
Rule: Some light verbs seem lighter than others in that they resist the passive voice.
Vector Verb Example
taken a nap was taken

a walk was taken

held an opinion was held
harbored a resentment was harbored
Legend:

  1. Green indicates the passive voice

A.k.a. delexical verb, empty verb, explicator verb, intensifier, light verb, operator, secondary verb, semantically weak verb, thin verb

Credit to: Vector Verbs

Verb Phrase
Definition: A main verb + objects/complements. A verb phrase consists of a verb plus any modifiers, complements, objects, infinitive markers, particles, operators, progressives, perfects, passive, and modals (Kosur).

Two grammatical forms function as the verb phrase complement:

  1. Prepositional phrases
  2. Verb phrases

A.k.a. verb string, verbal group

Verb Phrase Head Definition: Words that are the heads or primary verb of verb phrases.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the verb head

has stimulated
have been running
will eat
has been running
was swimming
must be heading out

Verb Phrase as Prepositional Complement Definition: It’s a verb phrase introduced by a preposition followed by a gerund or present participle.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the preposition
  2. Blue indicates the verb phrase
  3. Pale Green indicates the gerund or present participle

Mama says I have to write you a thank-you for giving me the Legos.

Craig dumped me because of my laughing at him.

We find out what equipment is needed for roasting the pig.

The guys’ll kill the vampire by jamming a stake through his heart.

Verb Phrase as Verbal Complement Definition: A verb phrase in the form of an infinitive or base form.

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Legend:

  1. Green indicates the infinitive
  2. Blue indicates the base form

The students have to pass the test.

She intends to attend the ceremony.

My neighbors happen to own a hot air balloon.

Grandpa can come start the fire for the barbecue.

He helps manage the student workers.

Would you come wash the dishes?

Phrasal Verb
Definition: A type of verb consisting of two-parts: a verb + a particle/preposition/adverb or a combination of an adverb and a preposition.

It frequently means something different from the original verb, creating an idiomatic meaning.

There are separable, inseparable, and intransitive phrasal verbs (Purdue OWL).

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Verb + Particle It Means Example
Drop off Decline gradually

Fall asleep

Stop and give something to someone

The hill dropped off near the river.

He dropped off while watching TV.

Would you drop this off with Mary, please?

Drop out Cease to participate He dropped out of school.
Separable Verb: Rule: The verb and the particle can be separated so that a noun or pronoun can be inserted in between.

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Verb + Particle It Means Example
Add up To add She added up the total on her calculator.

She added it up on her calculator.

Legend:

  1. Green indicates the separated verb and particle
Inseparable Verb: Rule: The verb and the particle cannot be separated.
Verb + Particle It Means Example
Get around To evade She always gets around the rules.

She always gets the rules around.

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C’mon, get it out of your system, bitch, whine, moan . . . which words are your pet peeves? Also, please note that I try to be as accurate as I can, but mistakes happen or I miss something. Email me if you find errors, so I can fix them . . . and we’ll all benefit!

Satisfy your curiosity about other Grammar Explanations by exploring its homepage or more generally explore the index of self-editing posts. You may also want to explore Book Layout & Formatting Ideas, Formatting Tips, Grammar Explanations, Linguistics, Publishing Tips, the Properly Punctuated, Word Confusions, Writing Ideas and Resources, and Working Your Website.

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Resources for Verbs

Some of these links may be affiliate links, and I will earn a small percentage, if you should buy it. It does not affect the price you pay.

“3.14 Modality.” Academic Writing. Ewriting. Resource.acu.edu.au. n.d. Web. 4 Mar 2023. <https://resource.acu.edu.au/acuskills/acstyle/3_14.html>.

“24 Modal Auxiliary Verbs.” Grammary.in. n.d. Web. 4 Mar 2023. <https://grammary.in/24-modal-auxiliary-verbs/>.

Aarts, Bas. “Mood and Modality: What is the difference?” Grammarianism. 2015. Web. 12 June 2019. <https://grammarianism.wordpress.com/2015/08/27/mood-and-modality-what-is-the-difference/>.

“Auxiliary.” The Guide to Grammar and Writing has a great deal of detailed information on modal auxiliary verbs at <http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/auxiliary.htm>.

“Auxiliary Verb.” Wikipedia. n.d. Web. n.d. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verb>.

Battistella, Edwin L. “What are Light Verbs?” Oxford University Press. DATE. Web. 5 Mar 2023. <https://blog.oup.com/2022/02/what-are-light-verbs/>.

Burckmyer, Becky. Awesome Grammar. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press, 2008. <https://amzn.to/3HT5NSX>. Print.

Chalker, Sylvia and Edmund Weiner. The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. Oxford University Press: 1994. <https://amzn.to/3I1JJ8J>. Print.

“Conditional 2.” Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital Community College. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conditional2.htm>.

“Defective Verbs in English.” Really Learn English. n.d. Web. 25 June 2023. <https://store.really-learn-english.com/pages/defective-verbs-in-english#:~:text=A%20defective%20verb%20is%20a,past%2C%20and%20past%20participle).>.

“Ditransitive Verbs in the Passive Voice.” Grammaring. n.d. Web. n.d. <https://www.grammaring.com/ditransitive-verbs-in-the-passive-voice>.

“Examples of The Conditional Mood”. Learn English. n.d. Web. 12 June 2019. <https://www.learngrammar.net/a/examples-of-the-conditional-mood>.

Ferreira, Núbia, Ana Paula Barros Brandão, and Marina Wit. “The Relationship Between Irrealis Mood and Deontic Modality in Paresi (Arawak)”. ResearchGate. December 2018. Web. 12 June 2019. <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331456142_The_relationship_between_irrealis_mood_and_deontic_modality_in_Paresi_Arawak>.

“Finite.” Capital Community College. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#finite>.

Fogarty, Mignon. Grammar Girl. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/grammar-girl>.

“Grammar Terms.” English Club. n.d. Web. n.d. <https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/terms.htm>.

Haitt, Michael. “Historical Writing and When to Use Present Tense.” Planting the Seeds. 28 Apr 2013. Web. n.d. <http://michaelhait.wordpress.com/2013/04/28/historical-present/>.

“Historic Present.” American English. Oxford Dictionaries. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/historic-present>.

Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum.The Cambridge Grammar of the English. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002. <https://amzn.to/3ZcjkvP>.

Kosur, Heather Marie. “Using Verbs as Verb Phrase Heads.” Linguistics Girl. 2014. Web. n.d. <http://www.linguisticsgirl.com/using-verbs-as-verb-phrase-heads/>.

Kruger, Barbara. “The Passé Simple (Historic Past Tense) – Regular Verbs.” French Grammar. The Leaf Project. 17 Sept 2015. Web. 5 Mar 2023. <https://www.leaflanguages.org/french-grammar-the-passe-simple-historic-past-tense-regular-verbs/>.

Maddox, Maeve. “What is Dative Case?” Daily Writing Tips. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.dailywritingtips.com/what-is-dative-case/>.

“Main Verb Forms.” English Club. n.d. Web. n.d. <https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verb-forms-main.htm>.

McCarthy, Chris. “Advanced Level: Present Continuous.” Learn English. 11 Nov 2013. Web. 5 Mar 2023. <https://www.ecenglish.com/learnenglish/lessons/advanced-level-present-continuous>.

Miller, Jim. “An Introduction to English Syntax.” Edinburgh University Press: 2008. <https://amzn.to/3IJtiPU>. Print.

Murdoch, Iris. Absolute Write.net. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://absolutewrite.net/forums/showthread.php?t=26488>.

Nordquist, Richard. “The Difference Between Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives.” ThoughtCo. 17 July 2019. Web. n.d. <ttp://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/verbalswhat.htm>.

⸻. “Gerunds: Special Verbs That are Also Nouns.” ThoughtCo. Last updated 23 Mar 2020. Web. n.d. <http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/gerundterm.htm>.

⸻. “Understanding Participial Phrases.” ThoughtCo. Updated on 30 June 2019. Web. n.d. <http://grammar.about.com/od/basicsentencegrammar/a/creatpartphrase.htm>.

“Nouns: Object of the Verbal.” The Tongue Untied. 21 Aug 2013. Web. 27 April 2019. <http://www.grammaruntied.com/blog/?p=723>.

“Past Perfect Continuous.” English Grammar. Edu Find. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/past-perfect-continuous/>.

“Personal Endings.” Lesson 20: Verbs/Personal Endings. iBiblio. n.d. Web. 1 Mar 2023. < https://www.ibiblio.org/bgreek/project/funk-grammar/pre-alpha/lesson-20.html>.

“A Quick Guide to Modals in English.” College of English Language. n.d. Web. 23 Feb 2023. <https://www.englishcollege.com/what-difference-modals-auxiliary-5-types-use-correctly>.

“Realis Mood.” Wikipedia.org. 3 Mar 2022. Web. 21 Feb 2023. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realis_mood>.

“Sequence of Tenses.” Purdue OWL. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/601/01/>.

Shrives, Craig. “What is Case in Grammar? (with Examples).” Grammar Monster. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/case.htm#OBgGFTz7RYMOULIF.99>.

⸻. “What is the Dative Case? (with Examples).” Grammar Monster. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/dative_case.htm>.

⸻. “What is the Genitive Case? (with Examples).” Grammar Monster. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/genitive_case.htm>.

⸻. “What is an Imperative Sentence? (with Examples).” Grammar-Monster.com. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/imperative_sentence.htm>.

⸻. “What is the Objective Case? (with Examples).” Grammar Monster. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/objective_case.htm#2ArGtEsL4RggPZok.99>.

“Simple Future.” English Page. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplefuture.html>.

“Ten Types of Verbs.” About.com. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://grammar.about.com/od/irregularverbs/a/Ten-Types-Of-Verbs.htm>.

Thornbury, Scott. “Grammar: Modal Verbs May and Might.” One Stop English. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/ask-the-experts/grammar-questions/grammar-modal-verbs-may-and-might/146354.article>.

University of Chicago Press Staff. Chicago Manual of Style. 15th Ed. University of Chicago Press: 2007. <https://amzn.to/3ZeDDZw>. Print.

Van Der Auwera, Johan and and Alfonso Zamorano Aguilar. Jan Nuyts and Johan Van Der Auwera, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Modality and Mood. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. <https://amzn.to/3Invn2C>.

“Vector Verbs.” WordSense Online Dictionary. 27 Feb 2023. Web. 1 Mar 2023. <https://www.wordsense.eu/vector_verbs/>.

“Verbs.” Towson.edu. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.towson.edu/ows/verbs.htm>.

Walker, Alice. “In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose.” Harvard Book Store. n.d. Web. n.d. <https://www.harvard.com/book/in_search_of_our_mothers_gardens_womanist_prose/>.

Wilson, Jeff. Mindful America: The Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. <https://amzn.to/3ExBtMZ>. Print.

Wilson, Paige & Teresa Ferster Glazier. The Least You Should Know About English. Boston: Thomson Learning, 2003. <https://amzn.to/3ZcuvF4>. Print. pp 110–111.

“Zero Conditional.” English Club. n.d. Web. n.d. <http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-conditional_5.htm>.

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